Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.6alpha first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk Image Image talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk AaA 1 32899315 2005-12-27T18:46:47Z Jsmethers 614213 #REDIRECT [[AAA]] AlgeriA 5 18063769 2005-07-03T11:13:13Z Docu 8029 adding cur_id=5: {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[Algeria]]{{R from CamelCase}} AmericanSamoa 6 18063795 2005-07-03T11:14:17Z Docu 8029 adding to cur_id=6 {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[American Samoa]]{{R from CamelCase}} AppliedEthics 8 15898943 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Applied ethics]] AccessibleComputing 10 15898945 2003-04-25T22:18:38Z Ams80 7543 Fixing redirect #REDIRECT [[Accessible_computing]] AdA 11 15898946 2002-09-22T16:02:58Z Andre Engels 300 #REDIRECT [[Ada programming language]] Anarchism 12 42136831 2006-03-04T01:41:25Z CJames745 832382 /* Anarchist Communism */ too many brackets {{Anarchism}} '''Anarchism''' originated as a term of abuse first used against early [[working class]] [[radical]]s including the [[Diggers]] of the [[English Revolution]] and the [[sans-culotte|''sans-culottes'']] of the [[French Revolution]].[http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770/Anarchism.html] Whilst the term is still used in a pejorative way to describe ''"any act that used violent means to destroy the organization of society"''<ref>[http://www.cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/deflem/zhistorintpolency.html History of International Police Cooperation], from the final protocols of the "International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists", 1898</ref>, it has also been taken up as a positive label by self-defined anarchists. The word '''anarchism''' is [[etymology|derived from]] the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''[[Wiktionary:&#945;&#957;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#943;&#945;|&#945;&#957;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#943;&#945;]]'' ("without [[archon]]s (ruler, chief, king)"). Anarchism as a [[political philosophy]], is the belief that ''rulers'' are unnecessary and should be abolished, although there are differing interpretations of what this means. Anarchism also refers to related [[social movement]]s) that advocate the elimination of authoritarian institutions, particularly the [[state]].<ref>[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Definitions_of_anarchism Definitions of anarchism] on Wikiquote, accessed 2006</ref> The word "[[anarchy]]," as most anarchists use it, does not imply [[chaos]], [[nihilism]], or [[anomie]], but rather a harmonious [[anti-authoritarian]] society. In place of what are regarded as authoritarian political structures and coercive economic institutions, anarchists advocate social relations based upon [[voluntary association]] of autonomous individuals, [[mutual aid]], and [[self-governance]]. While anarchism is most easily defined by what it is against, anarchists also offer positive visions of what they believe to be a truly free society. However, ideas about how an anarchist society might work vary considerably, especially with respect to economics; there is also disagreement about how a free society might be brought about. == Origins and predecessors == [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], and others, argue that before recorded [[history]], human society was organized on anarchist principles.<ref>[[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], Peter. ''"[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]"'', 1902.</ref> Most anthropologists follow Kropotkin and Engels in believing that hunter-gatherer bands were egalitarian and lacked division of labour, accumulated wealth, or decreed law, and had equal access to resources.<ref>[[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], Freidrich. ''"[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/index.htm Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State]"'', 1884.</ref> [[Image:WilliamGodwin.jpg|thumb|right|150px|William Godwin]] Anarchists including the [[The Anarchy Organisation]] and [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard]] find anarchist attitudes in [[Taoism]] from [[History of China|Ancient China]].<ref>The Anarchy Organization (Toronto). ''Taoism and Anarchy.'' [[April 14]] [[2002]] [http://www.toxicpop.co.uk/library/taoism.htm Toxicpop mirror] [http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/5705/taoan.html Vanity site mirror]</ref><ref>[[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard]], Murray. ''"[http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/ancient-chinese.html The Ancient Chinese Libertarian Tradition]"'', an extract from ''"[http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire]"'', The Journal of Libertarian Studies, 9 (2) Fall 1990.</ref> [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]] found similar ideas in [[stoicism|stoic]] [[Zeno of Citium]]. According to Kropotkin, Zeno "repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual". <ref>[http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/britt1910.html Anarchism], written by Peter Kropotkin, from Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910]</ref> The [[Anabaptist]]s of 16th century Europe are sometimes considered to be religious forerunners of modern anarchism. [[Bertrand Russell]], in his ''History of Western Philosophy'', writes that the Anabaptists "repudiated all law, since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by [[the Holy Spirit]]...[f]rom this premise they arrive at [[communism]]...."<ref>[[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], Bertrand. ''"Ancient philosophy"'' in ''A History of Western Philosophy, and its connection with political and social circumstances from the earliest times to the present day'', 1945.</ref> [[Diggers (True Levellers)|The Diggers]] or "True Levellers" were an early communistic movement during the time of the [[English Civil War]], and are considered by some as forerunners of modern anarchism.<ref>[http://www.zpub.com/notes/aan-hist.html An Anarchist Timeline], from Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1994.</ref> In the [[modern era]], the first to use the term to mean something other than chaos was [[Louis-Armand de Lom d'Arce de Lahontan, Baron de Lahontan|Louis-Armand, Baron de Lahontan]] in his ''Nouveaux voyages dans l'Amérique septentrionale'', (1703), where he described the [[Native Americans in the United States|indigenous American]] society, which had no state, laws, prisons, priests, or private property, as being in anarchy<ref>[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-12 Dictionary of the History of Ideas - ANARCHISM]</ref>. [[Russell Means]], a [[libertarian]] and leader in the [[American Indian Movement]], has repeatedly stated that he is "an anarchist, and so are all [his] ancestors." In 1793, in the thick of the [[French Revolution]], [[William Godwin]] published ''An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice'' [http://web.bilkent.edu.tr/Online/www.english.upenn.edu/jlynch/Frank/Godwin/pjtp.html]. Although Godwin did not use the word ''anarchism'', many later anarchists have regarded this book as the first major anarchist text, and Godwin as the "founder of philosophical anarchism." But at this point no anarchist movement yet existed, and the term ''anarchiste'' was known mainly as an insult hurled by the [[bourgeois]] [[Girondins]] at more radical elements in the [[French revolution]]. ==The first self-labelled anarchist== [[Image:Pierre_Joseph_Proudhon.jpg|110px|thumb|left|Pierre Joseph Proudhon]] {{main articles|[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] and [[Mutualism (economic theory)]]}} It is commonly held that it wasn't until [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] published ''[[What is Property?]]'' in 1840 that the term "anarchist" was adopted as a self-description. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory. In [[What is Property?]] Proudhon answers with the famous accusation "[[Property is theft]]." In this work he opposed the institution of decreed "property" (propriété), where owners have complete rights to "use and abuse" their property as they wish, such as exploiting workers for profit.<ref name="proudhon-prop">[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], Pierre-Joseph. ''"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/proudhon/property/ch03.htm Chapter 3. Labour as the efficient cause of the domain of property]"'' from ''"[[What is Property?]]"'', 1840</ref> In its place Proudhon supported what he called 'possession' - individuals can have limited rights to use resources, capital and goods in accordance with principles of equality and justice. Proudhon's vision of anarchy, which he called [[mutualism]] (mutuellisme), involved an exchange economy where individuals and groups could trade the products of their labor using ''labor notes'' which represented the amount of working time involved in production. This would ensure that no one would profit from the labor of others. Workers could freely join together in co-operative workshops. An interest-free bank would be set up to provide everyone with access to the means of production. Proudhon's ideas were influential within French working class movements, and his followers were active in the [[Revolution of 1848]] in France. Proudhon's philosophy of property is complex: it was developed in a number of works over his lifetime, and there are differing interpretations of some of his ideas. ''For more detailed discussion see [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|here]].'' ==Max Stirner's Egoism== {{main articles|[[Max Stirner]] and [[Egoism]]}} In his ''The Ego and Its Own'' Stirner argued that most commonly accepted social institutions - including the notion of State, property as a right, natural rights in general, and the very notion of society - were mere illusions or ''ghosts'' in the mind, saying of society that "the individuals are its reality." He advocated egoism and a form of amoralism, in which individuals would unite in 'associations of egoists' only when it was in their self interest to do so. For him, property simply comes about through might: "Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property." And, "What I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing." Stirner never called himself an anarchist - he accepted only the label 'egoist'. Nevertheless, his ideas were influential on many individualistically-inclined anarchists, although interpretations of his thought are diverse. ==American individualist anarchism== [[Image:BenjaminTucker.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Benjamin Tucker]]]] {{main articles|[[Individualist anarchism]] and [[American individualist anarchism]]}} In 1825 [[Josiah Warren]] had participated in a [[communitarian]] experiment headed by [[Robert Owen]] called [[New Harmony]], which failed in a few years amidst much internal conflict. Warren blamed the community's failure on a lack of [[individual sovereignty]] and a lack of private property. Warren proceeded to organise experimenal anarchist communities which respected what he called "the sovereignty of the individual" at [[Utopia (anarchist community)|Utopia]] and [[Modern Times]]. In 1833 Warren wrote and published ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', which some have noted to be the first anarchist periodical ever published. Benjamin Tucker says that Warren "was the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism." (''Liberty'' XIV (December, 1900):1) [[Benjamin Tucker]] became interested in anarchism through meeting Josiah Warren and [[William B. Greene]]. He edited and published ''Liberty'' from August 1881 to April 1908; it is widely considered to be the finest individualist-anarchist periodical ever issued in the English language. Tucker's conception of individualist anarchism incorporated the ideas of a variety of theorists: Greene's ideas on [[mutualism|mutual banking]]; Warren's ideas on [[cost the limit of price|cost as the limit of price]] (a [[heterodox economics|heterodox]] variety of [[labour theory of value]]); [[Proudhon]]'s market anarchism; [[Max Stirner]]'s [[egoism]]; and, [[Herbert Spencer]]'s "law of equal freedom". Tucker strongly supported the individual's right to own the product of his or her labour as "[[private property]]", and believed in a <ref name="tucker-pay">[[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker]], Benjamin. ''"[http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/tucker/tucker37.htm Labor and Its Pay]"'' Individual Liberty: Selections From the Writings of Benjamin R. Tucker, Vanguard Press, New York, 1926, Kraus Reprint Co., Millwood, NY, 1973.</ref>[[market economy]] for trading this property. He argued that in a truly free market system without the state, the abundance of competition would eliminate profits and ensure that all workers received the full value of their labor. Other 19th century individualists included [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]], and [[Victor Yarros]]. ==The First International== [[Image:Bakuninfull.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Bakunin|Mikhail Bakunin 1814-1876]]]] {{main articles|[[International Workingmen's Association]], [[Anarchism and Marxism]]}} In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848. Twenty years later in 1864 the [[International Workingmen's Association]], sometimes called the 'First International', united some diverse European revolutionary currents including anarchism. Due to its genuine links to active workers movements the International became signficiant. From the start [[Karl Marx]] was a leading figure in the International: he was elected to every succeeding General Council of the association. The first objections to Marx came from the [[Mutualism|Mutualists]] who opposed communism and statism. Shortly after [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his followers joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. The clearest difference between the camps was over strategy. The anarchists around Bakunin favoured (in Kropotkin's words) "direct economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation." At that time Marx and his followers focused on parliamentary activity. Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[authoritarian]], and predicted that if a Marxist party gained to power its leaders would end up as bad as the [[ruling class]] they had fought against.<ref>[[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], Mikhail. ''"[http://www.litencyc.com/php/adpage.php?id=1969 Statism and Anarchy]"''</ref> In 1872 the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]]. This is often cited as the origin of the [[Anarchist_objections_to_marxism|conflict between anarchists and Marxists]]. From this moment the ''[[Social democracy|social democratic]]'' and ''[[Libertarian socialism|libertarian]]'' currents of socialism had distinct organisations including rival [[List of left-wing internationals|'internationals'.]] ==Anarchist Communism== {{main|Anarchist communism}} [[Image:PeterKropotkin.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Peter Kropotkin]] Proudhon and Bakunin both opposed [[communism]], associating it with statism. However, in the 1870s many anarchists moved away from Bakunin's economic thinking (called "collectivism") and embraced communist concepts. Communists believed the means of production should be owned collectively, and that goods be distributed by need, not labor. [http://nefac.net/node/157] An early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as "[[libertarian socialism|libertarian]]".[http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/DejacqueJoseph.htm]<ref>[http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in [[French language|French]])</ref> Unlike Proudhon, he argued that "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature." He announced his ideas in his US published journal Le Libertaire (1858-1861). Peter Kropotkin, often seen as the most important theorist, outlined his economic ideas in The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops. He felt co-operation is more beneficial than competition, illustrated in nature in Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1897). Subsequent anarchist communists include Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman. Many in the anarcho-syndicalist movements (see below) saw anarchist communism as their objective. Isaac Puente's 1932 Comunismo Libertario was adopted by the Spanish CNT as its manifesto for a post-revolutionary society. Some anarchists disliked merging communism with anarchism. Several individualist anarchists maintained that abolition of private property was not consistent with liberty. For example, Benjamin Tucker, whilst professing respect for Kropotkin and publishing his work[http://www.zetetics.com/mac/libdebates/apx1pubs.html], described communist anarchism as "pseudo-anarchism".<ref name="tucker-pay"/> ==Propaganda of the deed== [[Image:JohannMost.jpg|left|150px|thumb|[[Johann Most]] was an outspoken advocate of violence]] {{main|Propaganda of the deed}} Anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent, due mainly to a number of high-profile violent acts, including [[riot]]s, [[assassination]]s, [[insurrection]]s, and [[terrorism]] by some anarchists. Some [[revolution]]aries of the late 19th century encouraged acts of political violence, such as [[bomb]]ings and the [[assassination]]s of [[head of state|heads of state]] to further anarchism. Such actions have sometimes been called '[[propaganda by the deed]]'. One of the more outspoken advocates of this strategy was [[Johann Most]], who said "the existing system will be quickest and most radically overthrown by the annihilation of its exponents. Therefore, massacres of the enemies of the people must be set in motion."{{fact}} Most's preferred method of terrorism, dynamite, earned him the moniker "Dynamost." However, there is no [[consensus]] on the legitimacy or utility of violence in general. [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Errico Malatesta]], for example, wrote of violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force in revolutionary settings. But at the same time, they denounced acts of individual terrorism. (Malatesta in "On Violence" and Bakunin when he refuted Nechaev). Other anarchists, sometimes identified as [[anarcho-pacifists|pacifist anarchists]], advocated complete [[nonviolence]]. [[Leo Tolstoy]], whose philosophy is often viewed as a form of [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchism]] ''(see below)'', was a notable exponent of [[nonviolent resistance]]. ==Anarchism in the labour movement== {{seealso|Anarcho-syndicalism}} [[Image:Flag of Anarcho syndicalism.svg|thumb|175px|The red-and-black flag, coming from the experience of anarchists in the labour movement, is particularly associated with anarcho-syndicalism.]] [[Anarcho-syndicalism]] was an early 20th century working class movement seeking to overthrow capitalism and the state to institute a worker controlled society. The movement pursued [[industrial action]]s, such as [[general strike]], as a primary strategy. Many anarcho-syndicalists believed in [[anarchist communism]], though not all communists believed in syndicalism. After the [[Paris Commune|1871 repression]] French anarchism reemerged, influencing the ''Bourses de Travails'' of autonomous workers groups and trade unions. From this movement the [[Confédération Générale du Travail]] (General Confederation of Work, CGT) was formed in 1895 as the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement. [[Emile Pataud]] and [[Emile Pouget]]'s writing for the CGT saw [[libertarian communism]] developing from a [[general strike]]. After 1914 the CGT moved away from anarcho-syndicalism due to the appeal of [[Bolshevism]]. French-style syndicalism was a significant movement in Europe prior to 1921, and remained a significant movement in Spain until the mid 1940s. The [[Industrial Workers of the World]] (IWW), founded in 1905 in the US, espoused [[industrial unionism|unionism]] and sought a [[general strike]] to usher in a stateless society. In 1923 100,000 members existed, with the support of up to 300,000. Though not explicitly anarchist, they organized by rank and file democracy, embodying a spirit of resistance that has inspired many Anglophone syndicalists. [[Image:CNT_tu_votar_y_ellos_deciden.jpg|thumb|175px|CNT propaganda from April 2004. Reads: Don't let the politicians rule our lives/ You vote and they decide/ Don't allow it/ Unity, Action, Self-management.]] Spanish anarchist trade union federations were formed in the 1870's, 1900 and 1910. The most successful was the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Prior to the 1940s the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics. With a membership of 1.58 million in 1934, the CNT played a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. ''See also:'' [[Anarchism in Spain]]. Syndicalists like [[Ricardo Flores Magón]] were key figures in the [[Mexican Revolution]]. [[Latin America|Latin American]] anarchism was strongly influenced, extending to the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatista]] rebellion and the [[factory occupation movements]] in Argentina. In Berlin in 1922 the CNT was joined with the [[International Workers Association]], an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the [[First International]]. Contemporary anarcho-syndicalism continues as a minor force in many socities; much smaller than in the 1910s, 20s and 30s. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederación General del Trabajo]] and the [[CNT]]. The CGT claims a paid-up membership of 60,000, and received over a million votes in Spanish [[syndical]] elections. Other active syndicalist movements include the US [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]], and the UK [[Solidarity Federation]]. The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]] also exists, claiming 2,000 paid members. Contemporary critics of anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary industrial unionism claim that they are [[workerist]] and fail to deal with economic life outside work. Post-leftist critics such as [[Bob Black]] claim anarcho-syndicalism advocates oppressive social structures, such as [[Manual labour|work]] and the [[workplace]]. Anarcho-syndicalists in general uphold principles of workers solidarity, [[direct action]], and self-management. ==The Russian Revolution== {{main|Russian Revolution of 1917}} The [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] was a seismic event in the development of anarchism as a movement and as a philosophy. Anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolsheviks]] in both February and October revolutions, many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict which culminated in the 1918 [[Kronstadt rebellion]]. Anarchists in central Russia were imprisoned or driven underground, or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In [[Ukraine]] anarchists fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against both Whites and Bolsheviks within the Makhnovshchina peasant army led by [[Nestor Makhno]]). Expelled American anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] before leaving Russia were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising. Both wrote classic accounts of their experiences in Russia, aiming to expose the reality of Bolshevik control. For them, [[Bakunin]]'s predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule had proved all too true. The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US for example, the major syndicalist movements of the [[CGT]] and [[IWW]] began to realign themselves away from anarchism and towards the [[Comintern|Communist International]]. In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles which included [[Nestor Makhno]] concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, known as the [[Platformism|Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists]], was supported by some communist anarchists, though opposed by many others. The ''Platform'' continues to inspire some contemporary anarchist groups who believe in an anarchist movement organised around its principles of 'theoretical unity', 'tactical unity', 'collective responsibility' and 'federalism'. Platformist groups today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland, the UK's [[Anarchist Federation]], and the late [[North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] in the northeastern United States and bordering Canada. ==The fight against fascism== {{main articles|[[Anti-fascism]] and [[Anarchism in Spain]]}} [[Image:CNT-armoured-car-factory.jpg|right|thumb|270px|[[Spain]], [[1936]]. Members of the [[CNT]] construct [[armoured car]]s to fight against the [[fascist]]s in one of the [[collectivisation|collectivised]] factories.]] In the 1920s and 1930s the familiar dynamics of anarchism's conflict with the state were transformed by the rise of [[fascism]] in Europe. In many cases, European anarchists faced difficult choices - should they join in [[popular front]]s with reformist democrats and Soviet-led [[Communists]] against a common fascist enemy? Luigi Fabbri, an exile from Italian fascism, was amongst those arguing that fascism was something different: :"Fascism is not just another form of government which, like all others, uses violence. It is the most authoritarian and the most violent form of government imaginable. It represents the utmost glorification of the theory and practice of the principle of authority." {{fact}} In France, where the fascists came close to insurrection in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a 'united front' policy. [http://melior.univ-montp3.fr/ra_forum/en/people/berry_david/fascism_or_revolution.html] In Spain, the [[CNT]] initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the ruling class responded with an attempted coup, and the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936-39) was underway. In reponse to the army rebellion [[Anarchism in Spain|an anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of the major [[city]] of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[collectivization|collectivized]] the land. But even before the eventual fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the [[Stalinists]]. The CNT leadership often appeared confused and divided, with some members controversially entering the government. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives, and persecuted both [[POUM|dissident marxists]] and anarchists. Since the late 1970s anarchists have been involved in fighting the rise of [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]] groups. In Germany and the United Kingdom some anarchists worked within [[militant]] [[anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] groups alongside members of the [[Marxist]] left. They advocated directly combating fascists with physical force rather than relying on the state. Since the late 1990s, a similar tendency has developed within US anarchism. ''See also: [[Anti-Racist Action]] (US), [[Anti-Fascist Action]] (UK), [[Antifa]]'' ==Religious anarchism== [[Image:LeoTolstoy.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Leo Tolstoy|Leo Tolstoy]] 1828-1910]] {{main articles|[[Christian anarchism]] and [[Anarchism and religion]]}} Most anarchist culture tends to be [[secular]] if not outright [[militant athiesm|anti-religious]]. However, the combination of religious social conscience, historical religiousity amongst oppressed social classes, and the compatibility of some interpretations of religious traditions with anarchism has resulted in religious anarchism. [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]] believe that there is no higher authority than [[God]], and oppose earthly authority such as [[government]] and established churches. They believe that Jesus' teachings were clearly anarchistic, but were corrupted when "Christianity" was declared the official religion of Rome. Christian anarchists, who follow Jesus' directive to "turn the other cheek", are strict [[pacifism|pacifists]]. The most famous advocate of Christian anarchism was [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'', who called for a society based on compassion, nonviolent principles and freedom. Christian anarchists tend to form [[experimental communities]]. They also occasionally [[tax resistance|resist taxation]]. Many Christian anarchists are [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]] or [[veganism|vegan]]{{fact}}. Christian anarchy can be said to have roots as old as the religion's birth, as the [[early church]] exhibits many anarchistic tendencies, such as communal goods and wealth. By aiming to obey utterly certain of the Bible's teachings certain [[anabaptism|anabaptist]] groups of sixteenth century Europe attempted to emulate the early church's social-economic organisation and philosophy by regarding it as the only social structure capable of true obediance to Jesus' teachings, and utterly rejected (in theory) all earthly hierarchies and authority (and indeed non-anabaptists in general) and violence as ungodly. Such groups, for example the [[Hutterites]], typically went from initially anarchistic beginnings to, as their movements stabalised, more authoritarian social models. [[Chinese Anarchism]] was most influential in the 1920s. Strands of Chinese anarchism included [[Tai-Xu]]'s [[Buddhist Anarchism]] which was influenced by Tolstoy and the [[well-field system]]. [[Neopaganism]], with its focus on the environment and equality, along with its often decentralized nature, has lead to a number of neopagan anarchists. One of the most prominent is [[Starhawk]], who writes extensively about both [[spirituality]] and [[activism]]. ==Anarchism and feminism== [[Image:Goldman-4.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Emma Goldman]]]] {{main|Anarcha-Feminism}} Early [[French feminism|French feminists]] such as [[Jenny d'Héricourt]] and [[Juliette Adam]] criticised the [[mysogyny]] in the anarchism of [[Proudhon]] during the 1850s. Anarcha-feminism is a kind of [[radical feminism]] that espouses the belief that [[patriarchy]] is a fundamental problem in society. While anarchist feminism has existed for more than a hundred years, its explicit formulation as ''anarcha-feminism'' dates back to the early 70s<ref>[http://www.anarcha.org/sallydarity/Anarcho-FeminismTwoStatements.htm Anarcho-Feminism - Two Statements - Who we are: An Anarcho-Feminist Manifesto]</ref>, during the [[second-wave feminism|second-wave]] feminist movement. Anarcha-feminism, views [[patriarchy]] as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history; thus, the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female. Anarcha-feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy, they must also be against all forms of [[hierarchy]], and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism. {{fact}} Anarcho-primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy a creation of the start of [[civilization]], and therefore consider primitivism to also be an anarchist school of thought that addresses feminist concerns. [[Eco-feminism]] is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought. Anarcha-feminism is most often associated with early 20th-century authors and theorists such as [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]], although even early first-wave feminist [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] held proto-anarchist views, and William Godwin is often considered a feminist anarchist precursor. It should be noted that Goldman and de Cleyre, though they both opposed the state, had opposing philosophies, as de Cleyre explains: "Miss Goldman is a communist; I am an individualist. She wishes to destroy the right of property, I wish to assert it. I make my war upon privilege and authority, whereby the right of property, the true right in that which is proper to the individual, is annihilated. She believes that co-operation would entirely supplant competition; I hold that competition in one form or another will always exist, and that it is highly desirable it should." In the [[Spanish Civil War]], an anarcha-feminist group, "Free Women", organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. In the modern day anarchist movement, many anarchists, male or female, consider themselves feminists, and anarcha-feminist ideas are growing. The publishing of Quiet Rumors, an anarcha-feminist reader, has helped to spread various kinds of anti-authoritarian and anarchist feminist ideas to the broader movement. Wendy McElroy has popularized an individualist-anarchism take on feminism in her books, articles, and individualist feminist website.<ref>[http://www.ifeminists.net I-feminists.net]</ref> ==Anarcho-capitalism== [[Image:Murray Rothbard Smile.JPG|thumb|left|150px|[[Murray Rothbard]] (1926-1995)]] {{main|Anarcho-capitalism}} Anarcho-capitalism is a predominantly United States-based theoretical tradition that desires a stateless society with the economic system of [[free market]] [[capitalism]]. Unlike other branches of anarchism, it does not oppose [[profit]] or capitalism. Consequently, most anarchists do not recognise anarcho-capitalism as a form of anarchism. [[Murray Rothbard]]'s synthesis of [[classical liberalism]] and [[Austrian economics]] was germinal for the development of contemporary anarcho-capitalist theory. He defines anarcho-capitalism in terms of the [[non-aggression principle]], based on the concept of [[Natural Law]]. Competiting theorists use egoism, [[utilitarianism]] (used by [[David Friedman]]), or [[contractarianism]] (used by [[Jan Narveson]]). Some [[minarchism|minarchists]], such as [[Ayn Rand]], [[Robert Nozick]], and [[Robert A. Heinlein]], have influenced anarcho-capitalism. Some anarcho-capitalists, along with some right-wing libertarian historians such as David Hart and [[Ralph Raico]], considered similar philosophies existing prior to Rothbard to be anarcho-capitalist, such as those of [[Gustave de Molinari]] and [[Auberon Herbert]] <ref>[[Gustave de Molinari|Molinari]], Gustave de. ''[http://praxeology.net/MR-GM-PS.htm Preface to "The Production of Security"]'', translated by J. Huston McCulloch, Occasional Papers Series #2 (Richard M. Ebeling, Editor), New York: The Center for Libertarian Studies, May 1977.</ref><ref name="david-hart"/><ref>[[Ralph Raico|Raico]], Ralph [http://www.mises.org/story/1787 ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century''] Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS (2004).</ref> Opponents of anarcho-capitalists dispute these claims.<ref>McKay, Iain; Elkin, Gary; Neal, Dave ''et al'' [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/append11.html Replies to Some Errors and Distortions in Bryan Caplan's "Anarchist Theory FAQ" version 5.2] ''An Anarchist FAQ Version 11.2'' Accessed February 20, 2006.</ref> The place of anarcho-capitalism within anarchism, and indeed whether it is a form of anarchism at all, is highly controversial. For more on this debate see ''[[Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism]]''. ==Anarchism and the environment== {{seealso|Anarcho-primitivism|Green anarchism|Eco-anarchism|Ecofeminism}} Since the late 1970s anarchists in Anglophone and European countries have been taking action for the natural environment. [[Eco-anarchism|Eco-anarchists]] or [[Green anarchism|Green anarchists]] believe in [[deep ecology]]. This is a worldview that embraces [[biodiversity]] and [[sustainability]]. Eco-anarchists often use [[direct action]] against what they see as earth-destroying institutions. Of particular importance is the [[Earth First!]] movement, that takes action such as [[tree sitting]]. Another important component is [[ecofeminism]], which sees the domination of nature as a metaphor for the domination of women. Green anarchism also involves a critique of industrial capitalism, and, for some green anarchists, civilization itself.{{fact}} Primitivism is a predominantly Western philosophy that advocates a return to a pre-industrial and usually pre-agricultural society. It develops a critique of industrial civilization. In this critique [[technology]] and [[development]] have [[alienation|alienated]] people from the natural world. This philosophy develops themes present in the political action of the [[Luddites]] and the writings of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. Primitivism developed in the context of the [[Reclaim the Streets]], Earth First! and the [[Earth Liberation Front]] movements. [[John Zerzan]] wrote that [[civilization]] &mdash; not just the state &mdash; would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved.{{fact}} Anarcho-primitivists point to the anti-authoritarian nature of many 'primitive' or hunter-gatherer societies throughout the world's history, as examples of anarchist societies. ==Other branches and offshoots== Anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements. Since the Western social formet in the 1960s and 1970s a number new of movements and schools have appeared. Most of these stances are limited to even smaller numbers than the schools and movements listed above. [[Image:Hakim Bey.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Hakim Bey]]]] *'''Post-left anarchy''' - Post-left anarchy (also called egoist-anarchism) seeks to distance itself from the traditional "left" - communists, liberals, social democrats, etc. - and to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements and single issue causes ([[anti-war]], [[anti-nuclear]], etc.). It calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. It often focuses on the individual rather than speaking in terms of class or other broad generalizations and shuns organizational tendencies in favor of the complete absence of explicit hierarchy. Important groups and individuals associated with Post-left anarchy include: [[CrimethInc]], the magazine [[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]] and its editor [[Jason McQuinn]], [[Bob Black]], [[Hakim Bey]] and others. For more information, see [[Infoshop.org]]'s ''Anarchy After Leftism''<ref>[http://www.infoshop.org/afterleftism.html Infoshop.org - Anarchy After Leftism]</ref> section, and the [http://anarchism.ws/postleft.html Post-left section] on [http://anarchism.ws/ anarchism.ws.] ''See also:'' [[Post-left anarchy]] *'''Post-structuralism''' - The term postanarchism was originated by [[Saul Newman]], first receiving popular attention in his book ''[[From Bakunin to Lacan]]'' to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought. Subsequent to Newman's use of the term, however, it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including [[autonomism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[situationism]], [[post-colonialism]] and Zapatismo. By its very nature post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible, to state with any degree of certainty who should or shouldn't be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include [[Saul Newman]], [[Todd May]], [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]]. ''External reference: Postanarchism Clearinghouse''<ref>[http://www.postanarchism.org/ Post anarchist clearing house]</ref> ''See also'' [[Post-anarchism]] *'''Insurrectionary anarchism''' - Insurrectionary anarchism is a form of revolutionary anarchism critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations. Insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization, including small affinity groups, carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles, and mass organizations called base structures, which can include exploited individuals who are not anarchists. Proponents include [[Wolfi Landstreicher]] and [[Alfredo M. Bonanno]], author of works including "Armed Joy" and "The Anarchist Tension". This tendency is represented in the US in magazines such as [[Willful Disobedience]] and [[Killing King Abacus]]. ''See also:'' [[Insurrectionary anarchism]] *'''Small 'a' anarchism''' - '''Small 'a' anarchism''' is a term used in two different, but not unconnected contexts. Dave Neal posited the term in opposition to big 'A' Anarchism in the article [http://www.spunk.org/library/intro/practice/sp001689.html Anarchism: Ideology or Methodology?]. While big 'A' Anarchism referred to ideological Anarchists, small 'a' anarchism was applied to their methodological counterparts; those who viewed anarchism as "a way of acting, or a historical tendency against illegitimate authority." As an anti-ideological position, small 'a' anarchism shares some similarities with [[post-left anarchy]]. [[David Graeber]] and [[Andrej Grubacic]] offer an alternative use of the term, applying it to groups and movements organising according to or acting in a manner consistent with anarchist principles of decentralisation, voluntary association, mutual aid, the network model, and crucially, "the rejection of any idea that the end justifies the means, let alone that the business of a revolutionary is to seize state power and then begin imposing one's vision at the point of a gun."[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&ItemID=4796] ==Other issues== *'''Conceptions of an anarchist society''' - Many political philosophers justify support of the state as a means of regulating violence, so that the destruction caused by human conflict is minimized and fair relationships are established. Anarchists argue that pursuit of these ends does not justify the establishment of a state; many argue that the state is incompatible with those goals and the ''cause'' of chaos, violence, and war. Anarchists argue that the state helps to create a [[Monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force|monopoly on violence]], and uses violence to advance elite interests. Much effort has been dedicated to explaining how anarchist societies would handle criminality.''See also:'' [[Anarchism and Society]] *'''Civil rights and cultural sovereignty''' - [[Black anarchism]] opposes the existence of a state, capitalism, and subjugation and domination of people of color, and favors a non-hierarchical organization of society. Theorists include [[Ashanti Alston]], [[Lorenzo Komboa Ervin]], and [[Sam Mbah]]. [[Anarchist People of Color]] was created as a forum for non-caucasian anarchists to express their thoughts about racial issues within the anarchist movement, particularly within the United States. [[National anarchism]] is a political view which seeks to unite cultural or ethnic preservation with anarchist views. Its adherents propose that those preventing ethnic groups (or [[races]]) from living in separate autonomous groupings should be resisted. [[Anti-Racist Action]] is not an anarchist group, but many anarchists are involved. It focuses on publicly confronting racist agitators. The [[Zapatista]] movement of Chiapas, Mexico is a cultural sovereignty group with some anarchist proclivities. *'''Neocolonialism and Globalization''' - Nearly all anarchists oppose [[neocolonialism]] as an attempt to use economic coercion on a global scale, carried out through state institutions such as the [[World Bank]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[G8|Group of Eight]], and the [[World Economic Forum]]. [[Globalization]] is an ambiguous term that has different meanings to different anarchist factions. Most anarchists use the term to mean neocolonialism and/or [[cultural imperialism]] (which they may see as related). Many are active in the [[anti-globalization]] movement. Others, particularly anarcho-capitalists, use "globalization" to mean the worldwide expansion of the division of labor and trade, which they see as beneficial so long as governments do not intervene. *'''Parallel structures''' - Many anarchists try to set up alternatives to state-supported institutions and "outposts," such as [[Food Not Bombs]], [[infoshop]]s, educational systems such as home-schooling, neighborhood mediation/arbitration groups, and so on. The idea is to create the structures for a new anti-authoritarian society in the shell of the old, authoritarian one. *'''Technology''' - Recent technological developments have made the anarchist cause both easier to advance and more conceivable to people. Many people use the Internet to form on-line communities. [[Intellectual property]] is undermined and a gift-culture supported by [[file sharing|sharing music files]], [[open source]] programming, and the [[free software movement]]. These cyber-communities include the [[GNU]], [[Linux]], [[Indymedia]], and [[Wiki]]. <!-- ***NEEDS SOURCE THAT E-GOLD IS USED BY ANARCHISTS*** [[Public key cryptography]] has made anonymous digital currencies such as [[e-gold]] and [[Local Exchange Trading Systems]] an alternative to statist [[fiat money]]. --> Some anarchists see [[information technology]] as the best weapon to defeat authoritarianism. Some even think the information age makes eventual anarchy inevitable.<ref>[http://www.modulaware.com/a/?m=select&id=0684832720 The Sovereign Individual -- Mastering the transition to the information age]</ref> ''See also'': [[Crypto-anarchism]] and [[Cypherpunk]]. *'''Pacifism''' - Some anarchists consider [[Pacifism]] (opposition to [[war]]) to be inherent in their philosophy. [[Anarcho-pacifism|anarcho-pacifists]] take it further and follow [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s belief in [[Nonviolence|non-violence]]. Anarchists see war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power, both domestically and in foreign lands, and subscribe to [[Randolph Bourne]]'s view that "war is the health of the state"<ref>[http://struggle.ws/hist_texts/warhealthstate1918.html War is the Health of the State]</ref>. A lot of anarchist activity has been [[anti-war]] based. *'''Parliamentarianism''' - In general terms, the anarchist ethos opposes voting in elections, because voting amounts to condoning the state.<ref>[http://members.aol.com/vlntryst/hitler.html The Voluntaryist - Why I would not vote against Hitler]</ref>. [[Voluntaryism]] is an anarchist school of thought which emphasizes "tending your own garden" and "neither ballots nor bullets." The anarchist case against voting is explained in ''The Ethics of Voting''<ref>[http://www.voluntaryist.com/nonvoting/ethics_of_voting.php Voluntaryist - The ethics of voting]</ref> by [[George H. Smith]]. (Also see "Voting Anarchists: An Oxymoron or What?" by [[Joe Peacott]], and writings by [[Fred Woodworth]]). *'''Sectarianism''' - Most anarchist schools of thought are, to some degree, [[sectarian]]. There is often a difference of opinion ''within'' each school about how to react to, or interact with, other schools. Some, such as [[panarchy|panarchists]], believe that it is possible for a variety of modes of social life to coexist and compete. Some anarchists view opposing schools as a social impossibility and resist interaction; others see opportunities for coalition-building, or at least temporary alliances for specific purposes. ''See [[anarchism without adjectives]].'' ==Criticisms of anarchism== :''Main article:'' [[Criticisms of anarchism]] '''Violence.''' Since anarchism has often been associated with violence and destruction, some people have seen it as being too violent. On the other hand hand, [[Frederick Engels]] criticsed anarchists for not being violent enough: :''"A revolution is certainly the most authoritarian thing there is; it is the act whereby one part of the population imposes its will upon the other part by means of rifles, bayonets and cannon — authoritarian means, if such there be at all; and if the victorious party does not want to have fought in vain, it must maintain this rule by means of the terror which its arms inspire in the reactionists. Would the Paris Commune have lasted a single day if it had not made use of this authority of the armed people against the bourgeois?"<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1872/10/authority.htm ''On Authority'']</ref> '''Utopianism.''' Anarchism is often criticised as unfeasible, or plain [[utopian]], even by many who agree that it's a nice idea in principle. For example, Carl Landauer in his book ''European Socialism'' criticizes anarchism as being unrealistically utopian, and holds that government is a "lesser evil" than a society without "repressive force." He holds that the belief that "ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears" is an "absurdity."<ref>[[Carl Landauer|Landauer]], Carl. ''European Socialism: A History of Ideas and Movements'' (1959) (retrieved from "Anarchist Theory FAQ" by [[Bryan Caplan]] on [[January 27]] [[2006]]</ref> However, it must be noted that not all anarchists have such a utopian view of anarchism. For example, some, such as Benjamin Tucker, advocate privately-funded institutions that defend individual liberty and property. However, other anarchists, such as Sir [[Herbert Read]], proudly accept the characterization "utopian." '''[[Social class|Class]] character.''' [[Marxists]] have characterised anarchism as an expression of the class interests of the [[petite bourgeoisie]] or perhaps the [[lumpenproletariat]]. See e.g. Plekhanov<ref>[[G. V. Plekhanov]] ''"[http://www.marxists.org/archive/plekhanov/1895/anarch/index.htm Anarchism and Socialism]"''</ref> for a Marxist critique of 1895. Anarchists have also been characterised as spoilt [[middle-class]] [[dilettante]]s, most recently in relation to [[anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] protesters. '''Tacit authoritarianism.''' In recent decades anarchism has been criticised by 'situationists', 'post-anarchists' and others of preserving 'tacitly statist', authoritarian or bureaucratic tendencies behind a dogmatic facade.<ref>[http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SI/en/display/20 ''Society of the Spectacle] Paragraph 91</ref> '''Hypocrisy.''' Some critics point to the [[sexist]]<ref>[[Jenny P. d'Hericourt]], ''"[http://www.pinn.net/~sunshine/whm2003/hericourt2.html Contemporary feminist critic of Proudhon]"''</ref> and [[racist]] views of some prominent anarchists, notably [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]] and [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], as examples of [[hypocrisy]] inherent within anarchism. While many anarchists, however, dismiss that the personal prejudices of 19th century theorists influence the beliefs of present-day anarchists, others criticise modern anarchism for continuing to be [[eurocentric]] and reference the impact of anarchist thinkers like Proudhon on [[fascism]] through groups like [[Cercle Proudhon]].<ref>[http://www.stewarthomesociety.org/ai.htm ''Anarchist Integralism]</ref> Anarcho-capitalist [[Bryan Caplan]] argues that the treatment of fascists and suspected fascist sympathizers by Spanish Anarchists in the Spanish Civil War was a form of illegitimate coercion, making the proffessed anarchists "ultimately just a third faction of totalitarians," alongside the communists and fascists. He also criticizes the willingness of the CNT to join the (statist) Republican government during the civil war, and references [[Stanley G. Payne]]'s book on the Franco regime which claims that the CNT entered negotiations with the fascist government six years after the war.<ref>[[Bryan Caplan|Caplan]], Bryan. ''"[http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/spain.htm The Anarcho-Statists of Spain]"''</ref> ==Cultural phenomena== [[Image:Noam_chomsky.jpg|thumb|150px|right| [[Noam Chomsky]] (1928–)]] The kind of anarchism that is most easily encountered in popular culture is represented by celebrities who publicly identify themselves as anarchists. Although some anarchists reject any focus on such famous living individuals as inherently élitist, the following figures are examples of prominent publicly self-avowed anarchists: * the [[MIT]] professor of [[Linguistics]] [[Noam Chomsky]] * the [[science fiction]] author [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] * the social historian [[Howard Zinn]] * entertainer and author [[Hans Alfredsson]] * the [[Avant-garde]] artist [[Nicolás Rosselló]] In [[Denmark]], the [[Freetown Christiania]] was created in downtown [[Copenhagen]]. The housing and employment crisis in most of [[Western Europe]] led to the formation of [[commune (intentional community)|communes]] and squatter movements like the one still thriving in [[Barcelona]], in [[Catalonia]]. Militant [[antifa|resistance to neo-Nazi groups]] in places like Germany, and the uprisings of [[autonomous Marxism]], [[situationist]], and [[Autonomist]] groups in France and Italy also helped to give popularity to anti-authoritarian, non-capitalist ideas. In various musical styles, anarchism rose in popularity. Most famous for the linking of anarchist ideas and music has been punk rock, although in the modern age, hip hop, and folk music are also becoming important mediums for the spreading of the anarchist message. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] this was associated with the [[punk rock]] movement; the band [[Crass]] is celebrated for its anarchist and [[pacifism|pacifist]] ideas. The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] punk band [[The Ex]] further exemplifies this expression. ''For further details, see [[anarcho-punk]]'' ==See also== <!-- (Please take care in adding to this list that it not grow excessively large, consider adding to the list of anarchist concepts page) --> There are many concepts relevant to the topic of anarchism, this is a brief summary. There is also a more extensive [[list of anarchist concepts]]. * [[individualist anarchism]], [[anarcho-communism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism]], [[anarcho-capitalism]], [[mutualism]], [[Christian anarchism]], [[anarcha-feminism]], [[green anarchism]], [[nihilist anarchism]], [[anarcho-nationalism]], [[black anarchism]], [[national anarchism]]. [[post-anarchism]], [[post-left anarchism]] * [[Libertarian Socialism]] * [[Anarchist symbolism]] * [[Anarchism/Links|List of anarchism links]] * [[List of anarchists]] * [[List of anarchist organizations]] * [[Major conflicts within anarchist thought]] * [[Past and present anarchist communities]] ===Historical events=== *[[Paris Commune]] (1871) *[[Haymarket Riot]] (1886) *[[The Makhnovschina]] (1917 &mdash; 1921) *[[Kronstadt rebellion]] (1921) *[[Spanish Revolution]] (1936) (see [[Anarchism in Spain]] and [[Spanish Revolution]]) *May 1968, France (1968) *[[WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999|WTO Meeting in Seattle]] (1999) ===Books=== {{main|List of anarchist books}} The following is a sample of books that have been referenced in this page, a more complete list can be found at the [[list of anarchist books]]. *[[Mikhail Bakunin]], ''[[God and the State]]'' [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html] *[[Emma Goldman]], ''[[Anarchism & Other Essays]]'' [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/goldman/GoldmanCW.html] *[[Peter Kropotkin]], ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution|Mutual Aid]]'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4341] *[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''[[What is Property?]]'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/360] *[[Rudolf Rocker]], ''[[Anarcho-Syndicalism (book)|Anarcho-Syndicalism]]'' *[[Murray Rothbard]] ''[[The Ethics of Liberty]]'' [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp] *[[Max Stirner]], ''[[The Ego And Its Own]]'' [http://www.df.lth.se/~triad/stirner/] *[[Leo Tolstoy]], ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'' [http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html] ===Anarchism by region/culture=== * [[African Anarchism]] * [[Anarchism in Spain]] * [[Anarchism in the English tradition]] * [[Chinese anarchism]] ==References== <div style="font-size: 85%"> <references/> </div> '''These notes have no corresponding reference in the article. They might be re-used.''' # {{note|bill}} [http://ns52.super-hosts.com/~vaz1net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html] # {{note|praxeology}} [http://praxeology.net/GM-PS.htm] # {{note|platform}} [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/platform/plat_preface.html] # {{note|appleton}} [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/appleton_boston.htm Against Politics - Appleton - Boston Anarchists] # {{note|Yarros-NotUtopian}} [[Victor Yarros|Yarros, Victor]] ''Liberty'' VII, [[January 2]] [[1892]]. # {{note|totse}} [http://www.totse.com/en/politics/anarchism/161594.html Noam Chomsky on Anarchism by Noam Chomsky] ==External links== The overwhelming diversity and number of links relating to anarchism is extensively covered on the [[List of anarchism web resources|links subpage]]. {{wikiquote|Definitions of anarchism}} *[http://anarchoblogs.protest.net/ Anarchoblogs] Blogs by Anarchists. *[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives] extensively archives information relating to famous anarchists. This includes many of their books and other publications. *Hundreds of anarchists are listed, with short bios, links & dedicated pages [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm at the Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia] *[http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop.org] ([[Infoshop.org|wikipedia page]]) *[http://www.iww.org/ Industrial Workers of the World] <!-- Attention! The external link portion of this article regularly grows far beyond manageable size. Please only list an outside link if it applies to anarchism in general and is somewhat noteworthy. Links to lesser known sites or submovements will be routinely moved to the list page to keep this article free of clutter --> [[Category:Anarchism|*]] [[Category:Forms of government|Anarchism]] [[Category:Political ideology entry points|Anarchism]] [[Category:Political theories|Anarchism]] [[Category:Social philosophy|Anarchism]] [[ar:لاسلطوية]] [[ast:Anarquismu]] [[bg:Анархизъм]] [[bs:Anarhizam]] [[ca:Anarquisme]] [[cs:Anarchismus]] [[da:Anarkisme]] [[de:Anarchismus]] [[eo:Anarkiismo]] [[es:Anarquismo]] [[et:Anarhism]] [[eu:Anarkismo]] [[fa:دولت‌زدائی]] [[fi:Anarkismi]] [[fr:Anarchisme]] [[gl:Anarquismo]] [[he:אנרכיזם]] [[hu:Anarchizmus]] [[id:Anarkisme]] [[is:Stjórnleysisstefna]] [[it:Anarchismo]] [[ja:アナキズム]] [[ko:아나키즘]] [[lt:Anarchizmas]] [[nl:Anarchisme]] [[nn:Anarkisme]] [[no:Anarkisme]] [[pl:Anarchizm]] [[pt:Anarquismo]] [[ro:Anarhism]] [[ru:Анархизм]] [[sco:Anarchism]] [[simple:Anarchism]] [[sk:Anarchizmus]] [[sl:Anarhizem]] [[sr:Анархизам]] [[sv:Anarkism]] [[th:ลัทธิอนาธิปไตย]] [[tr:Anarşizm]] [[zh:无政府主义]] [[zh-min-nan:Hui-thóng-tī-chú-gī]] AfghanistanHistory 13 15898948 2002-08-27T03:07:44Z Magnus Manske 4 whoops #REDIRECT [[History of Afghanistan]] AfghanistanGeography 14 15898949 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Geography of Afghanistan]] AfghanistanPeople 15 15898950 2002-08-21T10:42:35Z -- April 166 fix link #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Afghanistan]] AfghanistanEconomy 17 15898951 2002-05-17T15:30:05Z AxelBoldt 2 fix redirect #REDIRECT [[Economy of Afghanistan]] AfghanistanCommunications 18 15898952 2002-09-13T13:39:26Z Andre Engels 300 indirect redirect #REDIRECT [[Communications in Afghanistan]] AfghanistanTransportations 19 15898953 2002-10-09T13:36:44Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Afghanistan]] #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Afghanistan]] AfghanistanMilitary 20 15898954 2002-09-03T01:14:20Z Andre Engels 300 short-circuiting two-step redirect #REDIRECT [[Military of Afghanistan]] AfghanistanTransnationalIssues 21 15898955 2002-10-09T13:37:01Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]] #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]] AlTruism 22 15898956 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Altruism]] AssistiveTechnology 23 15898957 2003-04-25T22:20:03Z Ams80 7543 Fixing redirect #REDIRECT [[Assistive_technology]] AmoeboidTaxa 24 15898958 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]] Autism 25 42019020 2006-03-03T06:39:21Z Ohnoitsjamie 507787 rv difficult-to-follow paragraph <!-- NOTES: 1) Please do not convert the bullets to subheadings here as the table of contents would be too large in that case (for example, see the FAC). 2) Use ref/note combos for all links and explicitly cited references 3) Reference anything you put here with notable references, as this subject tends to attract a lot of controversy. -->{{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Childhood autism | ICD10 = F84.0 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|299.0}} | }} '''Autism''' is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests itself in markedly abnormal social interaction, communication ability, patterns of interests, and patterns of behavior. Although the specific [[etiology]] of autism is unknown, many researchers suspect that autism results from genetically mediated vulnerabilities to environmental triggers. And while there is disagreement about the magnitude, nature, and mechanisms for such environmental factors, researchers have found at least seven major genes prevalent among individuals diagnosed as autistic. Some estimate that autism occurs in as many as one [[United States]] child in 166, however the [[National Institute of Mental Health]] gives a more conservative estimate of one in 1000{{ref|NihAutismov2005}}. For families that already have one autistic child, the odds of a second autistic child may be as high as one in twenty. Diagnosis is based on a list of [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] criteria, and a series of standardized clinical tests may also be used. Autism may not be [[Physiology|physiologically]] obvious. A complete physical and [[neurological]] evaluation will typically be part of diagnosing autism. Some now speculate that autism is not a single condition but a group of several distinct conditions that manifest in similar ways. By definition, autism must manifest delays in "social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play," with "onset prior to age 3 years", according to the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]. The [[ICD-10]] also says that symptoms must "manifest before the age of three years." There have been large increases in the reported [[Autism epidemic|incidence of autism]], for reasons that are heavily debated by [[research]]ers in [[psychology]] and related fields within the [[scientific community]]. Some children with autism have improved their social and other skills to the point where they can fully participate in mainstream education and social events, but there are lingering concerns that an absolute cure from autism is impossible with current technology. However, many autistic children and adults who are able to communicate (at least in writing) are opposed to attempts to cure their conditions, and see such conditions as part of who they are. ==History== [[image:Asperger_kl2.jpg|frame|right|Dr. [[Hans Asperger]] described a form of autism in the 1940s that later became known as [[Asperger's syndrome]].]] The word ''autism'' was first used in the [[English language]] by Swiss psychiatrist [[Eugene Bleuler]] in a 1912 number of the ''American Journal of Insanity''. It comes from the Greek word for "self". However, the [[Medical classification|classification]] of autism did not occur until the middle of the [[twentieth century]], when in 1943 psychiatrist Dr. [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] in Baltimore reported on 11 child patients with striking behavioral similarities, and introduced the label ''early infantile autism''. He suggested "autism" from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &alpha;&upsilon;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf; (''autos''), meaning "self", to describe the fact that the children seemed to lack interest in other people. Although Kanner's first paper on the subject was published in a (now defunct) journal, ''The Nervous Child'', almost every characteristic he originally described is still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. At the same time an [[Austria|Austrian]] scientist, Dr. [[Hans Asperger]], described a different form of autism that became known as [[Asperger's syndrome]]&mdash;but the widespread recognition of Asperger's work was delayed by [[World War II]] in [[Germany]], and by the fact that his seminal paper wasn't translated into English for almost 50 years. The majority of his work wasn't widely read until 1997. Thus these two conditions were described and are today listed in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] DSM-IV-TR (fourth edition, text revision 1) as two of the five [[Pervasive developmental disorder|pervasive developmental disorders]] (PDD), more often referred to today as [[Autistic spectrum|autism spectrum disorders]] (ASD). All of these conditions are characterized by varying degrees of difference in [[communication skill]]s, social interactions, and restricted, repetitive and stereotyped patterns of [[Human behavior|behavior]]. Few clinicians today solely use the DSM-IV criteria for determining a diagnosis of autism, which are based on the absence or delay of certain developmental milestones. Many clinicians instead use an alternate means (or a combination thereof) to more accurately determine a [[diagnosis]]. ==Terminology== {{wiktionarypar2|autism|autistic}} When referring to someone diagnosed with autism, the term ''autistic'' is often used. However, the term ''person with autism'' can be used instead. This is referred to as ''[[person-first terminology]]''. The [[autistic community]] generally prefers the term ''autistic'' for reasons that are fairly controversial. This article uses the term ''autistic'' (see [[Talk:Autism|talk page]]). ==Characteristics== [[Image:kanner_kl2.jpg|frame|right|Dr. [[Leo Kanner]] introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in 1943.]] There is a great diversity in the skills and behaviors of individuals diagnosed as autistic, and physicians will often arrive at different conclusions about the appropriate diagnosis. Much of this is due to the [[sensory system]] of an autistic which is quite different from the sensory system of other people, since certain [[stimulus|stimulations]] can affect an autistic differently than a non-autistic, and the degree to which the sensory system is affected varies wildly from one autistic person to another. Nevertheless, professionals within [[pediatric]] care and development often look for early indicators of autism in order to initiate treatment as early as possible. However, some people do not believe in treatment for autism, either because they do not believe autism is a disorder or because they believe treatment can do more harm than good. ===Social development=== Typically, developing infants are social beings&mdash;early in life they do such things as gaze at people, turn toward voices, grasp a finger, and even smile. In contrast, most autistic children prefer objects to faces and seem to have tremendous difficulty learning to engage in the give-and-take of everyday human interaction. Even in the first few months of life, many seem indifferent to other people because they avoid eye contact and do not interact with them as often as non-autistic children. Children with autism often appear to prefer being alone to the company of others and may passively accept such things as hugs and cuddling without reciprocating, or resist attention altogether. Later, they seldom seek comfort from others or respond to parents' displays of [[anger]] or [[affection]] in a typical way. Research has suggested that although autistic children are attached to their [[parent]]s, their expression of this attachment is unusual and difficult to interpret. Parents who looked forward to the joys of cuddling, [[teaching]], and playing with their child may feel crushed by this lack of expected [[attachment theory|attachment]] behavior. Children with autism appear to lack "[[Theory of mind|theory of mind]]", the ability to see things from another person's perspective, a behavior cited as exclusive to human beings above the age of five and, possibly, other higher [[primate]]s such as adult [[gorilla]]s, [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]s and [[bonobos]]. Typical 5-year-olds can develop insights into other people's different knowledge, feelings, and intentions, interpretations based upon social cues (e.g., gestures, facial expressions). An individual with autism seems to lack these interpretation skills, an inability that leaves them unable to predict or understand other people's actions. The [[social alienation]] of autistic and Asperger's people is so intense from childhood that many of them have [[imaginary friend]]s as companionship. However, having an imaginary friend is not necessarily a sign of autism and also occurs in non-autistic children. Although not universal, it is common for autistic people to not regulate their behavior. This can take the form of crying or verbal outbursts that may seem out of proportion to the situation. Individuals with autism generally prefer consistent routines and environments; they may react negatively to changes in them. It is not uncommon for these individuals to exhibit aggression, increased levels of self-stimulatory behavior, self-injury or extensive withdrawal in overwhelming situations. ===Sensory system=== A key indicator to clinicians making a proper assessment for autism would include looking for symptoms much like those found in [[Sensory Integration Dysfunction|sensory integration dysfunction]]. Children will exhibit problems coping with the normal sensory input. Indicators of this disorder include oversensitivity or underreactivity to touch, movement, sights, or sounds; physical clumsiness or carelessness; poor body awareness; a tendency to be easily distracted; impulsive physical or verbal behavior; an activity level that is unusually high or low; not unwinding or calming oneself; difficulty learning new movements; difficulty in making transitions from one situation to another; social and/or emotional problems; delays in [[Speech delay|speech]], [[Language delay|language]] or [[motor skills]]; specific learning difficulties/delays in academic achievement. One common example is an individual with autism [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]]. A person with Autism may have trouble hearing certain people while other people are louder than usual. Or the person with autism may be unable to filter out sounds in certain situations, such as in a large crowd of people (see [[cocktail party effect]]). However, this is perhaps the part of the autism that tends to vary the most from person to person, so these examples may not apply to every autistic. It should be noted that sensory difficulties, although reportedly common in autistics, are not part of the [[DSM-IV]] diagnostic criteria for ''autistic disorder''. ===Communication difficulties=== By age 3, typical children have passed predictable language learning milestones; one of the earliest is babbling. By the first birthday, a typical toddler says words, turns when he or she hears his or her name, points when he or she wants a toy, and when offered something distasteful, makes it clear that the answer is "no." Speech development in people with autism takes different paths. Some remain [[mute]] throughout their lives while being fully [[literacy|literate]] and able to communicate in other ways&mdash;images, [[sign language]], and [[typing]] are far more natural to them. Some infants who later show signs of autism coo and babble during the first few months of life, but stop soon afterwards. Others may be delayed, developing language as late as the [[adolescence|teenage]] years. Still, inability to speak does not mean that people with autism are unintelligent or unaware. Once given appropriate accommodations, many will happily converse for hours, and can often be found in online [[chat room]]s, discussion boards or [[website]]s and even using communication devices at autism-community social events such as [[Autreat]]. Those who do speak often use [[language]] in unusual ways, retaining features of earlier stages of language development for long periods or throughout their lives. Some speak only single words, while others repeat the same phrase over and over. Some repeat what they hear, a condition called [[echolalia]]. Sing-song repetitions in particular are a calming, joyous activity that many autistic adults engage in. Many people with autism have a strong [[tonality|tonal]] sense, and can often understand spoken language. Some children may exhibit only slight delays in language, or even seem to have precocious language and unusually large [[vocabulary|vocabularies]], but have great difficulty in sustaining typical [[conversation]]s. The "give and take" of non-autistic conversation is hard for them, although they often carry on a [[monologue]] on a favorite subject, giving no one else an opportunity to comment. When given the chance to converse with other autistics, they comfortably do so in "parallel monologue"&mdash;taking turns expressing views and information. Just as "[[neurotypical]]s" (people without autism) have trouble understanding autistic [[body language]]s, vocal tones, or phraseology, people with autism similarly have trouble with such things in people without autism. In particular, autistic language abilities tend to be highly literal; people without autism often inappropriately attribute hidden meaning to what people with autism say or expect the person with autism to sense such unstated meaning in their own words. The body language of people with autism can be difficult for other people to understand. Facial expressions, movements, and gestures may be easily understood by some other people with autism, but do not match those used by other people. Also, their tone of voice has a much more subtle inflection in reflecting their feelings, and the [[auditory system]] of a person without autism often cannot sense the fluctuations. What seems to non-autistic people like a high-pitched, sing-song, or flat, [[robot]]-like voice is common in autistic children. Some autistic children with relatively good language skills speak like little adults, rather than communicating at their current age level, which is one of the things that can lead to problems. Since non-autistic people are often unfamiliar with the autistic [[body language]], and since autistic natural language may not tend towards speech, autistic people often struggle to let other people know what they need. As anybody might do in such a situation, they may scream in frustration or resort to grabbing what they want. While waiting for non-autistic people to learn to communicate with them, people with autism do whatever they can to get through to them. Communication difficulties may contribute to autistic people becoming socially anxious or depressed. ===Repetitive behaviors=== Although people with autism usually appear physically normal and have good muscle control, unusual repetitive motions, known as self-stimulation or "stimming," may set them apart. These behaviors might be extreme and highly apparent or more subtle. Some children and older individuals spend a lot of time repeatedly flapping their arms or wiggling their toes, others suddenly freeze in position. As [[child]]ren, they might spend hours lining up their cars and trains in a certain way, not using them for pretend play. If someone accidentally moves one of these toys, the child may be tremendously upset. Autistic children often need, and demand, absolute consistency in their environment. A slight change in any routine&mdash;in mealtimes, dressing, taking a bath, or going to school at a certain time and by the same route&mdash;can be extremely disturbing. People with autism sometimes have a persistent, intense preoccupation. For example, the child might be obsessed with learning all about [[vacuum cleaners]], [[train]] schedules or [[lighthouses]]. Often they show great interest in different languages, numbers, symbols or [[science]] topics. Repetitive behaviors can also extend into the spoken word as well. Perseveration of a single word or phrase, even for a specific number of times can also become a part of the child's daily routine. ===Effects in education=== Children with autism are affected with these symptoms every day. These unusual characteristics set them apart from the everyday normal student. Because they have trouble understanding people’s thoughts and feelings, they have trouble understanding what their teacher may be telling them. They do not understand that facial expressions and vocal variations hold meanings and may misinterpret what emotion their instructor is displaying. This inability to fully decipher the world around them makes education stressful. Teachers need to be aware of a student's disorder so that they are able to help the student get the best out of the lessons being taught. Some students learn better with visual aids as they are better able to understand material presented this way. Because of this, many teachers create “visual schedules” for their autistic students. This allows the student to know what is going on throughout the day, so they know what to prepare for and what activity they will be doing next. Some autistic children have trouble going from one activity to the next, so this visual schedule can help to reduce stress. Research has shown that working in pairs may be beneficial to autistic children. <!-- cite a source here, please! --> Autistic students have problems in schools not only with language and communication, but with socialization as well. They feel self-conscious about themselves and many feel that they will always be outcasts. By allowing them to work with peers they can make friends, which in turn can help them cope with the problems that arise. By doing so they can become more integrated into the mainstream environment of the classroom. A teacher's aide can also be useful to the student. The aide is able to give more elaborate directions that the teacher may not have time to explain to the autistic child. The aide can also facilitate the autistic child in such a way as to allow them to stay at a similar level to the rest of the class. This allows a partially one-on-one lesson structure so that the child is still able to stay in a normal classroom but be given the extra help that they need. There are many different techniques that teachers can use to assist their students. A teacher needs to become familiar with the child’s disorder to know what will work best with that particular child. Every child is going to be different and teachers have to be able to adjust with every one of them. Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders typically have high levels of anxiety and stress, particularly in social environments like school. If a student exhibits aggressive or explosive behavior, it is important for educational teams to recognize the impact of stress and anxiety. Preparing students for new situations by writing Social Stories can lower anxiety. Teaching social and emotional concepts using systematic teaching approaches such as The Incredible 5-Point Scale or other Cognitive Behavioral strategies can increase a student's ability to control excessive behavioral reactions. == DSM definition == Autism is defined in section 299.00 of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV) as: #A total of six (or more) items from (1), (2) and (3), with at least two from (1), and one each from (2) and (3): ##qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following: ###marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social interaction ###failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level ###a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest) ###lack of social or emotional reciprocity ##qualitative impairments in communication as manifested by at least one of the following: ###delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language (not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime) ###in individuals with adequate speech, marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others ###stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language ###lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level ##restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following: ###encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus ###apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals ###stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting, or complex whole-body movements) ###persistent preoccupation with parts of objects #Delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play. #The disturbance is not better accounted for by [[Rett syndrome|Rett's Disorder]] or [[Childhood disintegrative disorder|Childhood Disintegrative Disorder]]. The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual''<!-- -->'s diagnostic criteria in general is controversial for being vague and subjective. (See the [[DSM cautionary statement]].) The criteria for autism is much more controversial and some clinicians today may ignore it completely, instead solely relying on other methods for determining the diagnosis. == Types of autism == Autism presents in a wide degree, from those who are nearly [[dysfunctional]] and apparently [[Developmental Disability|mentally handicapped]] to those whose symptoms are mild or remedied enough to appear unexceptional ("normal") to the general public. In terms of both classification and therapy, autistic individuals are often divided into those with an [[Intelligence Quotient|IQ]]&lt;80 referred to as having "low-functioning autism" (LFA), while those with IQ&gt;80 are referred to as having "high-functioning autism" (HFA). Low and high functioning are more generally applied to how well an individual can accomplish activities of daily living, rather than to [[IQ]]. The terms low and high functioning are controversial and not all autistics accept these labels. Further, these two labels are not currently used or accepted in autism literature. This discrepancy can lead to confusion among service providers who equate IQ with functioning and may refuse to serve high-IQ autistic people who are severely compromised in their ability to perform daily living tasks, or may fail to recognize the intellectual potential of many autistic people who are considered LFA. For example, some professionals refuse to recognize autistics who can speak or write as being autistic at all, because they still think of autism as a communication disorder so severe that no speech or writing is possible. As a consequence, many "high-functioning" autistic persons, and autistic people with a relatively high [[IQ]], are underdiagnosed, thus making the claim that "autism implies retardation" self-fulfilling. The number of people diagnosed with LFA is not rising quite as sharply as HFA, indicating that at least part of the explanation for the apparent rise is probably better diagnostics. === Asperger's and Kanner's syndrome === [[Image:Hans Asperger.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Asperger described his patients as "little professors".]] In the current [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV-TR), the most significant difference between Autistic Disorder (Kanner's) and Asperger's syndrome is that a diagnosis of the former includes the observation of "[d]elays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play[,]" {{ref|bnat}} while a diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome observes "no clinically significant delay" in these areas. {{ref|bnas}} The DSM makes no mention of level of intellectual functioning, but the fact that Asperger's autistics as a group tend to perform better than those with Kanner's autism has produced a popular conception that ''[[Asperger's syndrome]]'' is synonymous with "higher-functioning autism," or that it is a lesser [[disorder]] than ''autism''. There is also a popular but not necessarily true conception that all autistic individuals with a high level of intellectual functioning have Asperger's autism or that both types are merely [[geek]]s with a medical label attached. Also, autism has evolved in the public understanding, but the popular identification of autism with relatively severe cases as accurately depicted in ''[[Rain Man]]'' has encouraged relatives of family members diagnosed in the autistic spectrum to speak of their loved ones as having Asperger's syndrome rather than autism. ===Autism as a spectrum disorder=== {{details|Autistic spectrum}} Another view of these disorders is that they are on a continuum known as [[autistic spectrum]] disorders. A related continuum is [[Sensory Integration Dysfunction]], which is about how well we integrate the information we receive from our senses. Autism, Asperger's syndrome, and Sensory Integration Dysfunction are all closely related and overlap. There are two main manifestations of classical autism, [[regressive autism]] and [[early infantile autism]]. Early infantile autism is present at birth while regressive autism begins before the age of 3 and often around 18 months. Although this causes some controversy over when the neurological differences involved in autism truly begin, some believe that it is only a matter of when an environmental toxin triggers the disorder. This triggering could occur during gestation due to a toxin that enters the mother's body and is transfered to the fetus. The triggering could also occur after birth during the crucial early nervous system development of the child due to a toxin directly entering the child's body. == Increase in diagnoses of autism == {{details|Autism epidemic}} [[Image:autismnocgraph.png|right|thumb|400px|The number of reported cases of autism has increased dramatically over the past decade. Statistics in graph from the [[National Center for Health Statistics]].]] There has been an explosion worldwide in reported cases of autism over the last ten years, which is largely reminiscent of increases in the diagnosis of [[schizophrenia]] and [[multiple personality disorder]] in the twentieth century. This has brought rise to a number of different theories as to the nature of the sudden increase. Epidemiologists argue that the rise in diagnoses in the United States is partly or entirely attributable to changes in diagnostic criteria, reclassifications, public awareness, and the incentive to receive federally mandated services. A widely cited study from the [[M.I.N.D. Institute]] in California ([[17 October]] [[2002]]), claimed that the increase in autism is real, even after those complicating factors are accounted for (see reference in this section below). Other researchers remain unconvinced (see references below), including Dr. Chris Johnson, a professor of pediatrics at the University of Texas Health Sciences Center at [[San Antonio]] and cochair of the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] Autism Expert Panel, who says, "There is a chance we're seeing a true rise, but right now I don't think anybody can answer that question for sure." ([[Newsweek]] reference below). The answer to this question has significant ramifications on the direction of research, since a ''real increase'' would focus more attention (and research funding) on the search for environmental factors, while ''little or no real increase'' would focus more attention to genetics. On the other hand, it is conceivable that certain environmental factors (vaccination, diet, societal changes) may have a particular impact on people with a specific genetic constitution. There is little public research on the effects of [[in vitro fertilization]] on the number of incidences of autism. One of the more popular theories is that there is a connection between "geekdom" and autism. This is hinted, for instance, by a ''Wired Magazine'' article in 2001 entitled "The [[Geek]] Syndrome", which is a point argued by many in the autism rights movement{{ref|Wired}}. This article, many professionals assert, is just one example of the media's application of mental disease labels to what is actually variant normal behavior&mdash;they argue that shyness, lack of athletic ability or social skills, and intellectual interests, even when they seem unusual to others, are not in themselves signs of autism or Asperger's syndrome. Others assert that it is actually the medical profession which is applying mental disease labels to children who in the past would have simply been accepted as a little different or even labeled 'gifted'. See [[clinomorphism]] for further discussion of this issue. Due to the recent publicity surrounding autism and autistic spectrum disorders, an increasing number of adults are choosing to seek diagnoses of high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome in light of symptoms they currently experience or experienced during childhood. Since the cause of autism is thought to be at least partly genetic, a proportion of these adults seek their own diagnosis specifically as follow-up to their children's diagnoses. Because autism falls into the [[pervasive developmental disorder]] category, strictly speaking, symptoms must have been present in a given patient before age seven in order to make a [[differential diagnosis]]. == Therapies == {{details|Autism therapies}} ==Sociology== Due to the complexity of autism, there are many facets of [[sociology]] that need to be considered when discussing it, such as the culture which has evolved from autistic persons connecting and communicating with one another. In addition, there are several subgroups forming within the autistic community, sometimes in strong opposition to one another. ===Community and politics=== {{details|Autistic community}} {{details|Autism rights movement}} Much like many other controversies in the world, the autistic community itself has splintered off into several groups. Essentially, these groups are those who seek a cure for autism, dubbed ''pro-cure'', those who do not desire a cure for autism and as such resist it, dubbed ''anti-cure'', and the many people caught in the middle of the two. In recent history, with scientists learning more about autism and possibly coming closer to a cure, some members of the "anti-cure" movement [[Autistic community#Declaration from the autism community|sent a letter to the United Nations]] demanding to be treated as a minority group rather than a group with a [[mental disability]] or disease. Websites such as autistics.org{{ref|refbot.770}} present the view of the anti-cure group. There are numerous resources available for autistics from many groups. Due to the fact that many autistics find it easier to communicate online than in person, many of these resources are available online. In addition, sometimes successful autistic adults in a local community will help out children with autism, much in the way a master would help out an apprentice, for example. 2002 was declared [[Autism Awareness Year]] in the [[United Kingdom]]&mdash;this idea was initiated by [[Ivan and Charika Corea]], parents of an autistic child, Charin. Autism Awareness Year was led by the [[British Institute of Brain Injured Children]], [[Disabilities Trust]], [[National Autistic Society]], [[Autism London]] and 800 organizations in the United Kingdom. It had the personal backing of [[United Kingdom|British]] Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] and parliamentarians of all parties in the [[Palace of Westminster]]. ===Culture=== {{details|Autistic culture}} With the recent increases in autism recognition and new approaches to educating and socializing autistics, an ''autistic culture'' has begun to develop. Similar to [[deaf culture]], autistic culture is based in a belief that autism is a unique way of being and not a disorder to be cured. There are some commonalities which are specific to autism in general as a culture, not just "autistic culture". It is a common misperception that people with autism do not marry; many do get married. Often, they marry another person with autism, although this is not always the case. Many times autistics are attracted to other autistics due to shared interests or obsessions, but more often than not the attraction is due to simple compatibility with personality types, the same as is true for non-autistics. Autistics who communicate have explained that companionship is as important to autistics as it is to anyone else. Multigenerational autistic families have also recently become a bit more common. The interests of autistic people and so-called "[[geeks]]" or "[[Nerd|nerds]]" can often overlap as autistic people can sometimes become preoccupied with certain subjects, much like the variant normal behavior geeks experience. However, in practice many autistic people have difficulty with working in groups, which impairs them even in the most "technical" of situations. ===Autistic adults=== [[image:Grandin2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Temple Grandin]], one of the more successful adults with autism. <small>Photograph courtesy Joshua Nathaniel Pritikin and William Lawrence Jarrold.</small>]] Some autistic adults are able to work successfully in mainstream jobs, usually those with high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome. Nevertheless, communication and social problems often cause difficulties in many areas of the autistic's life. Other autistics are capable of employment in sheltered workshops under the supervision of managers trained in working with persons with disabilities. A nurturing environment at home, at school, and later in job training and at work, helps autistic people continue to learn and to develop throughout their lives. Some argue that the internet allows autistic individuals to communicate and form online communities, in addition to being able to find occupations such as independent consulting, which does generally not require much human interaction offline. In the [[United States]], the public schools' responsibility for providing services ends when the autistic person is in their 20s, depending on each state. The family is then faced with the challenge of finding living arrangements and employment to match the particular needs of their adult child, as well as the programs and facilities that can provide support services to achieve these goals. === Autistic savants === {{Main|autistic savant}} The autistic savant phenomenon is sometimes seen in autistic people. The term is used to describe a person who is autistic and has extreme talent in a certain area of study. Although there is a common association between savants and autism (an association created by the 1988 film ''[[Rain Man]]''), most autistic people are not [[savants]]. [[Mental calculator]]s and fast [[programming]] skills are the most common form. The famous example is [[Daniel Tammet]], the subject of the [[documentary film]] ''[[The Brain Man]]'' {{ref|guardianbrainman}} ([[Kim Peek]], one of the inspirations for [[Dustin Hoffman]]'s character in the film ''[[Rain Man]]'', is not autistic). "Bright Splinters of the Mind" is a book that explores this issue further. == Other pervasive developmental disorders == Autism and Asperger's syndrome are just two of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs). The three other pervasive developmental disorders are [[Rett syndrome]], [[Childhood disintegrative disorder]], and [[PDD not otherwise specified|Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]]. Some of these are related to autism, while some of them are entirely separate conditions. === Rett syndrome === [[Rett syndrome]] is relatively rare, affecting almost exclusively females, one out of 10,000 to 15,000. After a period of normal development, sometime between 6 and 18 months, autism-like symptoms begin to appear. The little girl's mental and social development regresses; she no longer responds to her parents and pulls away from any social contact. If she has been talking, she stops; she cannot control her feet; she wrings her hands. Some of these early symptoms may be confused for autism. Some of the problems associated with Rett syndrome can be treated. [[Physical therapy|Physical]], [[Occupational therapy|occupational]], and [[Speech therapy|speech]] therapy can help with problems of coordination, movement, and [[speech]]. Scientists sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development have discovered that a mutation in the sequence of a single gene causes Rett syndrome, and can physically test for it with a 80% accuracy rate {{ref|nihrett}}. Rett syndrome in the past was sometimes classified as an autistic spectrum disorder, however most scientists agree that Rett syndrome is a separate developmental disorder and not part of the autistic spectrum {{ref|brighttotsrett}}. ===Childhood disintegrative disorder=== [[Childhood disintegrative disorder]] (CDD, and sometimes abbreviated as CHDD also) is a condition appearing in 3 or 4 year old children who have developed normally until age 2. Over several months, the child will deteriorate in intellectual, social, and language functioning from previously normal behaviour. This long period of normal development before regression helps differentiate CDD from Rett syndrome (and in fact it must be differentiated from autism in testing). The cause for CDD is unknown (thus it may be a spectrum disorder) but current evidence suggests it has something to do with the central nervous system {{ref|yalecdd}} {{ref|nihcdd}}. === Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified === [[PDD not otherwise specified|Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]], or PDD-NOS, is referred to as a ''subthreshold'' condition because it is a classification which is given to someone who suffers from impairments in social interaction, communication, and/or stereotyped behaviour but does not meet the criteria for one of the other four pervasive developmental disorders. Unlike the other four pervasive developmental disorders, PDD-NOS has no specific guidelines for diagnosis, so the person may have a lot of characteristics of an autistic person, or few to none at all. Note that pervasive developmental disorder is not a diagnosis, just a term to refer to the five mentioned conditions, while PDD-NOS is an official diagnosis {{ref|yalepddnos}}. ==See also== * '''General''' :* [[Autism therapies]] :* [[Causes of autism]] :* [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders]] :* [[Early Childhood Autism]] :* [[Heritability of autism]] * '''Groups''' :* [[Aspies For Freedom]] :* [[National Alliance for Autism Research]] * '''Controversy''' :* [[Controversies about functioning labels in the autism spectrum]] :* [[Controversies in autism]] :* [[Ethical challenges to autism treatment]] * '''Lists''' :* [[List of autism-related topics]] :* [[List of fictional characters on the autistic spectrum]] :* [[List of autistic people]] ==References== * {{cite web | author= | title=Rett syndrome (NIH Publication No. 01-4960) | publisher=Rockville, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development | year=2001 | work=Rett syndrome | url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm?from=autism | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear= 2005 }} * {{cite journal | author=Frombonne E. | title=Prevalence of childhood disintegrative disorder | journal=Autism | year=2002 | volume=6 | issue=2 | pages=149-157}} * {{cite journal | author=Volkmar RM and Rutter M. | title=Childhood disintegrative disorder: Results of the DSM-IV autism field trial | journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | year=1995 | volume=34 | pages=1092-1095}} * {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Ewald | given=Paul | title=Plague Time | date=April 2001 | org=Popular Science | url=http://www.centurytel.net/tjs11/bug/ewald1.htm}} * {{cite web | title=PANDAS (Paediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococci) and PITAND (Paediatric Infection-triggered Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders) | work=PANDAS & PITAND Syndromes | url=http://www.webpediatrics.com/pandas.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | title=Closer to Truth: PBS, with Paul Ewald | work=Microbes -- Friend or Foe? | url=http://www.pbs.org/kcet/closertotruth/explore/show_05.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | title=M.I.N.D. Institute Study Confirms Autism Increase | work=U.C. Davis| url=http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/news/MINDepi_study.html | accessdate=March 6| accessyear=2005 }} * {{Citenews | surname=Stenson | given=Jacqueline | title=As autism cases soar, a search for clues | date=[[24 February]] [[2005]] | org=Newsweek | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6947652/}} * {{Citenews | surname=Goode | given=Erica | title=Autism Statistics: More and More Autism Cases | date=[[26 January]] [[2004]] | org=New York Times | url=http://www.autisticsociety.org/article262.html}} * {{cite journal | author=Wing L, Potter D. | title=The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising? | journal=Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews | volume=8 | issue=3 | year=2002 | pages=151&#8211;61}} ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12216059&dopt=Abstract abstract]) * {{cite journal | author=Croen LA, Grether JK, Hoogstrate J, Selvin S. | title=The changing prevalence of autism in California | journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders| volume=32| issue=3 | year=2002 Jun | pages=207-15}} ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12108622 abstract]) * Manev R, Manev H. Aminoglycoside antibiotics and autism: a speculative hypothesis. BMC Psychiatry. 2001;1:5. Epub 2001 [[10 October]].[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11696245&query_hl=60] * Strock, Margaret (2004). Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders). NIH Publication No. NIH-04-5511, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD, 40 pp. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/autism.cfm ==Footnotes== # {{note|NihAutismov2005}} {{cite web | title=NIH Autism Overview 2005 | url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/autism_overview_2005.pdf | accessdate=February 5 | accessyear=2006 }} # {{note|bnat}} {{cite web | title=BehaveNet autism description | url=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/autistic.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|bnas}} {{cite web | title=BehaveNet aspergers description | url=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/asperger.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|Wired}} {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Silberman | given=Steve | title=The Geek Syndrome | date=December 2001 | org=Wired | url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers_pr.html}} # {{note|refbot.770}} {{cite web | title=autistics.org: The REAL Voice of Autism (See above) | url=http://www.autistics.org | accessdate=December 11 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|guardianbrainman}} {{cite web | title=Guardian "Brain Man" article | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,1409903,00.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|nihrett}} {{cite web | title=NIH Rett description | url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/rett/detail_rett.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|brighttotsrett}} {{cite web | title=Bright Tots Rett description | url=http://www.brighttots.com/Rett_Syndrome.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|yalecdd}} {{cite web | title=Yale CDD description | url=http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/cdd.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|nihcdd}} {{cite web | title=NIH CDD description | url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001535.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|yalepddnos}} {{cite web | title=PDD-NOS at Yale | url=http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/pddnos.html | accessdate=August 22 | accessyear=2005 }} ==External links== * '''General''' :[http://www.wrongplanet.net WrongPlanet.net - The Community and Resource for Autism] : [http://www.autism-spectrum-disorder.com Autism-Spectrum-Disorder.com] - Autism Spectrum Disorder : [http://www.colour-se7en.co.uk Colour-se7en]- a website created to bring awareness of spectrum related disorders and forums for NT and ASD interaction. : [http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/autism.htm EricDigests.org] - 'Teaching Students with Autism', Glen Dunlap, Lise Fox, ERIC Digest (October, 1999) : [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/magazine/story/0,11913,1639392,00.html Autistic and Proud] Describes new discoveries about autism, autistics speaking for themselves. : [http://www.weirdnotstupid.com Weird Not Stupid] - A website created from the perspective of a person who has two siblings who are on the Autism Spectrum with the goal of giving information to anybody who is seeking it. * ''Blogs'' : [http://autism.about.com/ Autism/Pervasive Developmental Disorders] By Adelle Jameson Tilton, [[About.com]] : [http://aboutautism.blogspot.com/ Autism News and More] : [http://www.adventuresinautism.blogspot.com/ Adventures In Autism] By a health professional who is the mother of an autistic boy. : [http://www.autismsymptoms.blogspot.com Autism Symptoms] : [http://www.gettingthetruthout.org Getting The Truth Out] By Argues that there are common misconceptions about autism. : [http://www.autismtreatment.info/reality+aba.aspx?rssid=1 Reality ABA, An Autism Diary] By Katherine Lee, mother of an autistic son. * ''Organizations'' :* [http://www.onthespectrum.com On The Spectrum] A web community for those on the autism spectrum with an emphasis on support and advocacy : [http://www.autismwebsite.com/ari/index.htm autismwebsite.com Autism Research Institute] Clearinghouse for information relating to autism, particularly the biomedical treatment approach : [http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServer Autism-Society.org] - [[Autism Society of America]] : [http://www.autistics.org autistics.org] - Clearinghouse for information related to autism, from a non-cure standpoint. Many articles by autistics. : [http://www.autism.org/contents.html Center for the Study of Autism], Autism Research Institute (founded by [[Bernard Rimland]]) * ''Resources'' : [http://www.geocities.com/growingjoel/index.html A Way Of Life] Resources and information for parents. :[http://www.autismtreatment.info Autism Treatment Info] Treatment Tips for Children with Autism, PDD & Asperger's Syndrome. : [http://rsaffran.tripod.com/aba.html ABA Resources for Recovery from Autism] - Information about and resource guide for behavioral intervention for autism : [http://www.autism-resources.com/ Autism-Resources.com] - Offering information and links regarding the developmental disabilities autism and Asperger's Syndrome. : [http://www.autismtalk.net Autism Talk] Parents & educators discuss all views. : [http://www.autismtoday.com/ AutismToday.com] - 'everything you need to know about autism', Autism Today : [http://www.teachers.tv/autism Focus on Autism] Selection of documentaries, interviews, etc. : [http://www.info.autism.org.uk/ Autism.org.uk] - 'PARIS: Public Autism Resource & Information Service' (directory of UK autism services) : [http://glennrowe.net/BaronCohen/AutismSpectrumQuotient/AutismSpectrumQuotient.aspx Autism Spectrum Quotient] - Measure Your Autism Spectrum Quotient : [http://www.rdos.net/eng/Aspie-quiz.php Aspie-quiz] - Quiz that measures autistic traits {{Pervasive developmental disorders}} {{featured article}} [[Category:Autism]] [[Category:Childhood psychiatric disorders]] [[Category:Disability]] [[Category:Communication disorders]] [[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ISCDRHP]] [[Category:Neurological disorders]] [[de:Autismus]] [[es:Autismo]] [[eo:Aŭtismo]] [[fr:Autisme]] [[ko:자폐증]] [[ia:Autismo]] [[it:Autismo]] [[he:אוטיזם]] [[ka:აუტიზმი]] [[hu:Autizmus]] [[ms:Autisme]] [[nl:Autisme]] [[ja:自閉症]] [[no:Autisme]] [[pl:Autyzm wczesnodziecięcy]] [[pt:Autismo]] [[simple:Autism]] [[sk:Autizmus (uzavretosť)]] [[sr:Аутизам]] [[fi:Autismi]] [[sv:Autism]] [[ta:மதியிறுக்கம்]] [[tr:Otizm]] [[zh:自閉症]] AlbaniaHistory 27 15898960 2002-10-09T13:37:21Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[History of Albania]] #REDIRECT [[History of Albania]] AlbaniaGeography 28 15898961 2002-10-09T13:37:41Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Geography of Albania]] #REDIRECT [[Geography of Albania]] AlbaniaPeople 29 15898962 2002-10-09T13:38:05Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]] #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]] AsWeMayThink 30 15898963 2002-08-07T17:29:40Z Lee Daniel Crocker 43 #REDIRECT [[As_We_May_Think]] AllSaints 33 15898964 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[All Saints]] AlbaniaGovernment 35 15898965 2002-10-09T13:38:25Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Politics of Albania]] #REDIRECT [[Politics of Albania]] AlbaniaEconomy 36 15898966 2002-10-09T13:39:00Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Economy of Albania]] #REDIRECT [[Economy of Albania]] AlchemY 38 15898967 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Alchemy]] Albedo 39 41496222 2006-02-27T19:32:46Z 24.119.3.44 {{otheruses}} '''Albedo''' is the measure of [[reflectivity]] of a surface or body. It is the ratio of [[electromagnetic radiation]] (EM radiation) reflected to the amount incident upon it. The fraction, usually expressed as a percentage from 0% to 100%, is an important concept in [[climatology]] and [[astronomy]]. This ratio depends on the [[frequency]] of the radiation considered: unqualified, it refers to an average across the spectrum of [[visible light]]. It also depends on the [[angle of incidence]] of the radiation: unqualified, normal incidence. Fresh snow albedos are high: up to 90%. The ocean surface has a low albedo. The average albedo of [[Earth]] is about 30% whereas the albedo of the [[Moon]] is about 7%. In astronomy, the albedo of satellites and asteroids can be used to infer surface composition, most notably ice content. [[Enceladus_(moon)|Enceladus]], a moon of Saturn, has the highest known albedo of any body in the solar system, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Human activities have changed the albedo (via forest clearance and farming, for example) of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect is difficult on the global scale: it is not clear whether the changes have tended to increase or decrease [[global warming]]. The "classical" example of albedo effect is the snow-temperature feedback. If a snow covered area warms and the snow melts, the albedo decreases, more sunlight is absorbed, and the temperature tends to increase. The converse is true: if snow forms, a cooling cycle happens. The intensity of the albedo effect depends on the size of the change in albedo and the amount of [[insolation]]; for this reason it can be potentially very large in the tropics. == Some examples of albedo effects == === Fairbanks, Alaska === According to the [[National Climatic Data Center]]'s GHCN 2 data, which is composed of 30-year smoothed climatic means for thousands of weather stations across the world, the college weather station at [[Fairbanks]], [[Alaska]], is about 3 °C (5 °F) warmer than the airport at Fairbanks, partly because of drainage patterns but also largely because of the lower albedo at the college resulting from a higher concentration of [[pine]] [[tree]]s and therefore less open snowy ground to reflect the heat back into space. Neunke and Kukla have shown that this difference is especially marked during the late [[winter]] months, when [[solar radiation]] is greater. === The tropics === Although the albedo-temperature effect is most famous in colder regions of Earth, because more [[snow]] falls there, it is actually much stronger in tropical regions because in the tropics there is consistently more sunlight. When [[Brazil]]ian ranchers cut down dark, tropical [[rainforest]] trees to replace them with even darker soil in order to grow crops, the average temperature of the area appears to increase by an average of about 3 °C (5 °F) year-round, which is a significant amount. === Small scale effects === Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. People who wear dark clothes in the summertime put themselves at a greater risk of [[heatstroke]] than those who wear white clothes. === Pine forests === The albedo of a [[pine]] forest at 45°N in the winter in which the trees cover the land surface completely is only about 9%, among the lowest of any naturally occurring land environment. This is partly due to the color of the pines, and partly due to multiple scattering of sunlight within the trees which lowers the overall reflected light level. Due to light penetration, the ocean's albedo is even lower at about 3.5%, though this depends strongly on the angle of the incident radiation. Dense [[swamp]]land averages between 9% and 14%. [[Deciduous tree]]s average about 13%. A [[grass]]y field usually comes in at about 20%. A barren field will depend on the color of the soil, and can be as low as 5% or as high as 40%, with 15% being about the average for farmland. A [[desert]] or large [[beach]] usually averages around 25% but varies depending on the color of the sand. [Reference: Edward Walker's study in the Great Plains in the winter around 45°N]. === Urban areas === Urban areas in particular have very unnatural values for albedo because of the many human-built structures which absorb light before the light can reach the surface. In the northern part of the world, cities are relatively dark, and Walker has shown that their average albedo is about 7%, with only a slight increase during the summer. In most tropical countries, cities average around 12%. This is similar to the values found in northern suburban transitional zones. Part of the reason for this is the different natural environment of cities in tropical regions, e.g., there are more very dark trees around; another reason is that portions of the tropics are very poor, and city buildings must be built with different materials. Warmer regions may also choose lighter colored building materials so the structures will remain cooler. === Trees === Because trees tend to have a low albedo, removing forests would tend to increase albedo and thereby cool the planet. Cloud feedbacks further complicate the issue. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Studies by the [[Hadley Centre]] have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of [[carbon sequestration]] on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g. Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming [http://66.102.11.104/search?q=cache:o7LD-owSkNgJ:www.ulapland.fi/home/arktinen/feed_pdf/Betts_revised.pdf+hadley+albedo+forest&hl=en]. === Snow === Snow albedos can be as high as 90%. This is for the ideal example, however: fresh deep snow over a featureless landscape. Over [[Antarctica]] they average a little more than 80%. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt (the ice-albedo [[feedback]]). This is the basis for predictions of enhanced warming in the polar and seasonally snow covered regions as a result of [[global warming]]. === Clouds === Clouds are another source of albedo that play into the global warming equation. Different types of clouds have different albedo values, theoretically ranging from a minimum of near 0% to a maximum in the high 70s. [[Climate model]]s have shown that if the whole Earth were to be suddenly covered by white clouds, the surface temperatures would drop to a value of about -150 °C (-240 °F). This model, though it is far from perfect, also predicts that to offset a 5 °C (9 °F) temperature change due to an increase in the magnitude of the [[greenhouse effect]], "all" we would need to do is increase the Earth's overall albedo by about 12% by adding more white clouds. Albedo and climate in some areas are already affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the [[contrail]]s of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 attacks]], after which all major airlines in the U.S. shut down for three days, showed a local 1 &deg;C increase in the daily temperature range (the difference of day and night temperatures) (''see: [[contrail]]''). === Aerosol effects === [[Particulate|Aerosol]] (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) has two effects, direct and indirect. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as [[Cloud condensation nuclei|CCN]]s and thereby change [[cloud properties]]) is less certain [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm#671]. === Black carbon === Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the [[IPCC]] say that their "estimate of the global mean radiative forcing for BC aerosols from fossil fuels is ... +0.2 W m<sup>-2</sup> (from +0.1 W m<sup>-2</sup> in the [[SAR_(IPCC)|SAR)]]) with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m<sup>-2</sup>". [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm]. [[Category:Electromagnetic radiation]] [[Category:Climatology]] [[Category:Climate forcing]] [[Category:Astrophysics]] [[als:Albedo]] [[bg:Албедо]] [[bs:Albedo]] [[ca:Albedo]] [[cs:Albedo]] [[da:Albedo]] [[de:Albedo]] [[et:Albeedo]] [[es:Albedo]] [[eo:Albedo]] [[fr:Albédo]] [[gl:Albedo]] [[ko:반사율]] [[hr:Albedo]] [[it:Albedo]] [[he:אלבדו]] [[hu:Albedó]] [[nl:Weerkaatsingsvermogen]] [[ja:アルベド]] [[no:Albedo]] [[nn:Albedo]] [[pl:Albedo]] [[pt:Albedo]] [[ru:Альбедо]] [[sk:Albedo]] [[sr:Албедо]] [[fi:Albedo]] [[sv:Albedo]] [[uk:Альбедо]] AfroAsiaticLanguages 40 15898969 2002-10-09T13:39:18Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] #REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] ArtificalLanguages 42 39218545 2006-02-11T16:19:55Z Nikai 9759 R from misspelling #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{R from misspelling}} Abu Dhabi 43 41580021 2006-02-28T07:19:07Z El C 92203 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.193.1.105|71.193.1.105]] ([[User talk:71.193.1.105|talk]]) to last version by Bloodshedder [[Image:AbuDhabi02.JPG|thumb|View of Abu Dhabi|right|300px]] [[Image:Abu Dhabi from Space-ISS006-E-32079-March 2003.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of Abu Dhabi (March 2003)]] [[Image:Emirates_Palace_Hotel_Abu_Dhabi_front.jpg|thumb|Emirates Palace Hotel Front|right|300px]] [[Image:Emirates_Palace_Hotel_Abu_Dhabi_side.jpg|thumb|Emirates Palace Hotel from the side|right|300px]] '''Abu Dhabi''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: &#1571;&#1576;&#1608; &#1592;&#1576;&#1610; ''&#700;Ab&#363; &#7826;aby'') is the largest of the seven [[emirate]]s that comprise the [[United Arab Emirates]] and was also the largest of the former [[Trucial States]]. '''Abu Dhabi''' is also a city of the same name within the Emirate that is the [[capital city|capital]] of the country, in north central UAE. The city lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the [[Persian Gulf]] from the central western coast. An estimated 1,000,000 lived there in 2000, with about an 80% [[expatriate]] population. Abu Dhabi city is located at {{coor d|24.4667|N|54.3667|E}}. [[Al Ain]] is Abu Dhabi's second largest urban area with a population of 348,000 ([[2003]] census estimate) and is located 150 kilometres inland. ==History== Parts of Abu Dhabi were settled as far back as the [[3rd millennium BC]] and its early history fits the nomadic, herding and fishing pattern typical of the broader region. Modern Abu Dhabi traces its origins to the rise of an important tribal confederation the Bani Yas in the late 18th century, who also assumed control of [[Dubai]]. In the 19th century the Dubai and Abu Dhabi branches parted ways. Into the mid-20th century, the economy of Abu Dhabi continued to be sustained mainly by camel herding, production of dates and vegetables at the inland oases of [[Al Ain]] and Liwa, and fishing and pearl diving off the coast of Abu Dhabi city, which was occupied mainly during the summer months. Most dwellings in Abu Dhabi city were, at this time constructed of palm fronds (barasti), with the better-off families occupying mud huts. The growth of the cultured pearl industry in the first half of the 20th century created hardship for residents of Abu Dhabi as pearls represented the largest export and main source of cash earnings. In 1939, Sheikh [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]] granted [[Petroleum]] concessions, and oil was first found in 1958. At first, oil money had a marginal impact. A few lowrise concete buildings were erected, and the first paved road was completed in 1961, but Sheikh Shakbut, uncertain whether the new oil royalties would last, took a cautious approach, prefering to save the revenue rather than investing it in development. His brother, [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan]], saw that oil wealth had the potential to transform Abu Dhabi. The ruling Al Nahayan family decided that Sheikh Zayed should replace his brother as Ruler and carry out his vision of developing the country. On [[August 6]], [[1966]], with the assistance of the British, Sheikh Zayed became the new ruler. See generally, Al-Fahim, M, ''From Rags to Riches: A Story of Abu Dhabi'', Chapter Six (London Centre of Arab Studies, 1995), ISBN 1 900404 00 1. With the announcement by Britain in 1968 that it would withdraw from the Gulf area by 1971, Sheikh Zayed became the main driving force behind the formation of the [[United Arab Emirates]]. After the Emirates gained independence in 1971, oil wealth continued to flow to the area and traditional [[Mudbrick|mud-brick]] [[hut]]s were rapidly replaced with [[banks]], boutiques and modern [[highrise]]s. ==Current ruler== His Highness Sheikh [[Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahayan]] is the hereditary [[Emir|emir]] and ruler of Abu Dhabi, as well as the current president of the [[United Arab Emirates]] (UAE). ==Postal History== [[Image:Stamp_Abu_1967_40f-170px.jpg|right|170px|thumb|[[Shaikh]] [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Zaid]], [[1967]].]] Now part of the [[United Arab Emirates]], '''Abu Dhabi''' was formerly the largest of the seven sheikdoms which made up the [[Trucial States]] on the so-called [[Pirate Coast]] of eastern [[Arabia]] between [[Oman]] and [[Qatar]]. The [[Trucial States]] as a whole had an area of some 32,000 square miles of which Abu Dhabi alone had 26,000. The capital was the town of Abu Dhabi which is on an offshore island and was first settled in 1761. The name [[Trucial States]] arose from [[treaties]] made with [[Great Britain]] in 1820 which ensured a condition of [[truce]] in the area and the suppression of [[piracy]] and [[slavery]]. The [[treaty]] expired on [[31 December]] [[1966]]. The decision to form the [[UAE]] was made on [[18 July]] [[1971]] and the [[federation]] was founded on [[1 August]] [[1972]], although the inaugural [[UAE]] stamps were not issued until [[1 January]] [[1973]]. [[petroleum|Oil]] production began on [[Das Island]] after [[prospecting]] during 1956-1960. [[Das Island]] is part of Abu Dhabi but lies well [[offshore]], about 100 miles north of the mainland. [[petroleum|Oil]] production on the [[mainland]] began in 1962. As a major [[petroleum|oil]] producer, Abu Dhabi soon acquired massive [[financial]] wealth. [[Investment]] in long-term [[construction]] projects and the establishment of a [[finance]] sector has led to the area becoming a centre of [[commerce]] which may well secure its lasting importance when the [[petroleum|oil]] resources are exhausted. In December 1960, [[postage stamps]] of [[Compendium of postage stamp issuers (Brit - British)#British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia|British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia]] were supplied to the [[construction]] workers on [[Das Island]] but the [[postal service]] was administered via the agency office in [[Bahrain]]. The [[mail]] was also [[postmark]]ed [[Bahrain]] so there was no clear indication that a [[letter]] had come from [[Das Island]]. On [[30 March]] [[1963]], a British agency was opened in Abu Dhabi and issued the agency stamps after the sheik objected to the use of the [[Trucial States]] [[definitive]]s. [[Mail]] from [[Das Island]] continued to be administered by [[Bahrain]] but was now cancelled by an Abu Dhabi [[Trucial States]] [[postmark]]. The first Abu Dhabi stamps were a [[definitive series]] of [[30 March]] [[1964]] depicting [[Shaikh]] [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]]. There were eleven values under the [[India|Indian]] [[currency]] that was used of 100 [[paisa|naye paise]] = 1 [[rupee]]. The range of values was 5 np to 10 [[rupee]]s. Despite the introduction of these [[definitive]]s, the British agency stamps remained valid in both Abu Dhabi and [[Das Island]] until the end of 1966 when they were withdrawn. A [[post office]] was opened on [[Das Island]] on [[6 January]] [[1966]] and this ended the [[Bahrain]] service. [[Mail]] from [[Das Island]] was now handled within Abu Dhabi. When the [[treaty]] with [[Great Britain]] expired at the end of 1966, Abu Dhabi introduced a new [[currency]] of 1000 [[fils]] = 1 [[dinar]] and took over its own postal administration, including the [[Das Island]] office. The earlier issues were subject to [[surcharge]]s in this [[currency]] and replacement [[definitive]]s were released depicting the new ruler [[Shaikh]] [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Zaid]]. Issues continued until introduction of [[UAE]] stamps in 1973. In all, Abu Dhabi issued 95 stamps from 1964 to 1972, the final set being three views of the [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]]. '''Source''': [http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/alpha/a/abudhabi.html Encyclopaedia of Postal History] ==Climate== Sunny/blue skies can be expected through-out the year. The months June through September are generally hot and humid with temperatures averaging above 40ºC(110ºF). The weather is usually pleasant from October to May. January to February is cooler and may require the use of a light jacket. The oasis city of [[Al Ain]] enjoys cooler temperatures even through summer due to [[sporadic]] rainfall. ==Transport== [[Abu Dhabi International Airport]] serves this city. The local time is [[GMT]] + 4 hours. ==Trivia== * The cartoon cat [[Garfield]] would often put the kitten [[Nermal]] in a box and ship him to Abu Dhabi. A common phrase from Garfield is "Abu Dhabi is where all the cute kittens go." The reason is that the author of Garfield found out through over-seas relations that the city of Abu Dhabi, and the majority of UAE, has a large amount of cats that roam wild. Many live around the suburbs. == See also == * [[Mina' Zayid]], the port of Abu Dhabi. * [[Al Ain]] * [[Marawah]] * [[Postal Authorities]] * [[Saudi Arabia]] * [[Transportation in the United Arab Emirates]] ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} {{commons|Abu Dhabi}} * [http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/alpha/a/abudhabi.html Encyclopaedia of Postal History] * [http://www.thepersiangulf.org/cities/abudhabi.html Abu Dhabi, The Persian Gulf] * [http://www.abudhabi.com/ abudhabi.com] * [http://www.adcci-uae.com/ Abu Dhabi Chamber of Commerce and Industry] * [http://www.adnoc.com/ Abu Dhabi National Oil Company] * [http://www.spe.org/society/abudhabi/AbuDhabi-info.htm SPE history, with oil details] * [http://www.angelfire.com/ok/ABUDHABISTAMPS/ Abu Dhabi postal history] * [http://www.adias-uae.com ADIAS], Abu Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey * [http://www.alloexpat.com/abu_dhabi_expat_forum/ Expatriates Forums in Abu Dhabi] * [http://www.timeoutabudhabi.com/ Time Out Abu Dhabi], Guide to life in Abu Dhabi *[http://www.careeruae.net/ Career UAE - Useful web site for the job seekers in Abu dabi/United Arab Emirates] ===Non-Government Organisations=== * [http://www.ansarburney.org/ Ansar Burney Trust] - human rights and anti-slavery organisation {{UAE}} [[Category:Capitals in Asia]] [[Category:Cities in the United Arab Emirates]] [[Category:Emirates]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Philately by country]] [[ar:أبوظبي]] [[bg:Абу Даби]] [[bs:Abu Dhabi]] [[ca:Abu Dhabi]] [[da:Abu Dhabi]] [[de:Abu Dhabi]] [[et:Abu Dhabi emiraat]] [[es:Abu Dhabi]] [[eo:Abu-Dabio]] [[fr:Abu Dhabi]] [[gl:Emirato de Abu Dabi]] [[ko:아부다비]] [[io:Abu Dhabi]] [[id:Abu Dhabi]] [[is:Abú Dabí]] [[it:Abu Dhabi]] [[he:אבו דאבי]] [[lt:Abu Dabis]] [[nl:Abu Dhabi]] [[ja:アブダビ]] [[no:Abu Dhabi]] [[nn:Abu Dhabi]] [[pl:Abu Zabi]] [[pt:Abu Dhabi]] [[ru:Абу-Даби]] [[simple:Abu Dhabi]] [[sk:Abú Zabí (mesto)]] [[fi:Abu Dhabi]] [[sv:Abu Dhabi]] [[uk:Абу-Дабі]] [[zh:阿布扎比]] AardvarK 44 15898972 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Aardvark]] AbacuS 46 15898973 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abacus]] AbalonE 47 15898974 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abalone]] AbbadideS 48 15898975 2002-10-09T13:39:34Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Abbadid]] #REDIRECT [[Abbadid]] AbbesS 49 15898976 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abbess]] AbbevilleFrance 50 15898977 2003-05-15T03:16:46Z Minesweeper 7279 fix double redir #REDIRECT [[Abbeville]] AbbeY 51 15898978 2002-05-19T16:35:31Z AxelBoldt 2 *fixing redirect #REDIRECT [[Abbey]] AbboT 52 15898979 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abbot]] Abbreviations 53 15898980 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abbreviation]] AtlasShrugged 54 15898981 2002-04-01T06:26:22Z Magnus Manske 4 No edit; Are all the subpages moved to &quot;Atlas shrugged&quot; (with space)? If they are, the old ones should be deleted (see orphans)! #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]] AchillEus 55 15898982 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Achilles]] ArtificialLanguages 56 39218442 2006-02-11T16:18:58Z Nikai 9759 R CamelCase #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{R CamelCase}} AtlasShruggedCharacters 58 15898984 2003-03-13T02:57:44Z CatherineMunro 8316 #REDIRECT [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]] #REDIRECT [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]] AtlasShruggedCompanies 59 15898985 2003-03-13T23:05:33Z Ams80 7543 Redirecting #REDIRECT [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged]] AyersMusicPublishingCompany 60 15898986 2003-03-19T13:36:26Z Ams80 7543 #REDIRECT [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged]] #REDIRECT [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged]] AtlasShruggedPlaces 61 15898987 2003-03-13T15:07:10Z Ams80 7543 Redirecting redirect #REDIRECT [[Places in Atlas Shrugged]] AtlasShruggedThings 62 15898988 2003-03-20T12:54:37Z Ams80 7543 #REDIRECT [[Things in Atlas Shrugged]] #REDIRECT [[Things in Atlas Shrugged]] AfricanAmericanPeople 241 37661965 2006-02-01T11:35:06Z Eskimbot 477460 Robot: Fixing double redirect #REDIRECT [[African American]] AdolfHitler 242 15898991 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Adolf Hitler]] AbdomeN 244 15898992 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abdomen]] AbdominalSurgery 246 15898993 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abdominal surgery]] AbeceDarians 247 15898994 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abecedarian]] AbeL 248 30807934 2005-12-10T09:01:43Z Spiffy sperry 79741 fix double redirect - [[Special:DoubleRedirects|click here to help]] #REDIRECT [[Cain and Abel]] AbensbergGermany 249 15898996 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abensberg]] AberdeenSouthDakota 251 15898997 2002-08-17T11:23:12Z DavidLevinson 1689 fix link #REDIRECT [[Aberdeen, South Dakota]] AardwolF 252 15898998 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Aardwolf]] AbadanIran 253 15898999 2003-11-08T12:12:19Z Minesweeper 7279 fix double redir #REDIRECT [[Abadan]] ArthurKoestler 254 15899000 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Arthur Koestler]] AynRand 255 15899001 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Ayn Rand]] AlexanderTheGreat 256 15899002 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Alexander the Great]] AnchorageAlaska 258 15899003 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Anchorage, Alaska]] ArgumentForms 259 15899004 2002-04-07T01:40:05Z The Anome 76 #redirect [[Argument form]] #redirect [[Argument form]] ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod 260 24813178 2005-10-05T14:22:00Z Kbdank71 197953 fix double redirect #REDIRECT [[Existence of God]] APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge 261 17822768 2005-06-29T11:11:17Z Jni 23999 fix redir #REDIRECT [[knowledge]] AnarchY 263 15899007 2002-11-05T13:28:51Z Tzartzam 3624 #REDIRECT [[Anarchy]] #REDIRECT [[Anarchy]] AsciiArt 264 15899008 2002-10-09T13:40:04Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[ASCII art]] #REDIRECT [[ASCII art]] AndreAgassi 268 15899010 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Andre Agassi]] AcademyAwards 269 41555330 2006-02-28T03:06:14Z Rdsmith4 61329 fix #REDIRECT [[Academy Awards]] AcademyAwards/BestPicture 270 15899012 2002-07-12T20:44:53Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 fix redirect #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] AustriaLanguage 271 19178967 2005-07-19T21:19:49Z Jnc 18024 Why are people too lazy to fix dbl redirs when they move a page? #REDIRECT [[Austrian German]] AcademicElitism 272 15899014 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Academic elitism]] AxiomOfChoice 274 15899015 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Axiom of choice]] AmericanFootball 276 15899016 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[American football]] AmericA 278 19987901 2005-07-31T16:10:07Z Paddu 6949 {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[America]] {{R from CamelCase}} AnnaKournikova 279 15899018 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Anna Kournikova]] AndorrA 280 15899019 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Andorra]] AndorrA/History 281 15899020 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z LA2 445 * #REDIRECT [[History of Andorra]] AndorrA/People 283 15899021 2002-08-20T15:38:36Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Andorra]] AndorrA/Government 284 15899022 2002-10-09T13:41:32Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Politics of Andorra]] #REDIRECT [[Politics of Andorra]] AndorrA/Economy 285 15899023 2002-10-09T13:41:53Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Economy of Andorra]] #REDIRECT [[Economy of Andorra]] AustroAsiaticLanguages 287 15899025 2005-05-01T07:12:45Z 212.100.250.225 [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Austro-Asiatic languages]] ActorS 288 15899026 2002-09-01T17:22:32Z Bryan Derksen 66 bypassing double redirect #REDIRECT [[Actor]] ActresseS 289 15899027 2003-11-08T12:13:11Z Minesweeper 7279 fix double redir #REDIRECT [[List of female movie actors]] A 290 42119076 2006-03-03T23:14:28Z Waggers 878293 Revert to revision 41533857 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {{AZ|uc=A|lc=a}} {{wiktionarypar2|A|a}} The letter '''A''' is the first letter in the [[Latin alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''a'', plural ''aes,'' ''a's,'' or ''as''. ==History== The letter A probably started as a [[pictogram]] of an [[ox]] head in [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s or the [[Proto-semitic alphabet]]. {| align="center" cellspacing="10" |- align="center" |[[Image:EgyptianA-01.png|Egyptian hieroglyphic ox head]]<br />Egyptian hieroglyph<br />ox head |[[Image:Proto-semiticA-01.png|Proto-semitic ox head]]<br />Proto-semitic<br />ox head |[[Image:PhoenicianA-01.png|Phoenician aleph]]<br />Phoenician ''aleph'' |[[Image:GreekA-01.png|Greek alpha]]<br />Greek ''alpha'' |[[Image:EtruscanA-01.png|Etruscan A]]<br />Etruscan A |[[Image:RomanA-01.png|Roman A]]<br />Roman A |} By [[1600 BC]], the [[Phoenician alphabet]]'s letter had a linear form that served as the basis for all later forms. Its name must have corresponded closely to the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] [[Aleph (letter)|aleph]]. The name is also similar to the Arabic [[Alif|alif.]] When the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they had no use for the [[glottal stop]] that the letter had denoted in Phoenician and other [[Semitic languages]], so they used the sign for the vowel {{IPA|/&#593;/}}, and changed its name to [[alpha (letter)|alpha]]. In the earliest Greek inscriptions, dating to the [[8th century BC]], the letter rests upon its side, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The [[Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to what was [[Italy]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic alphabet|Etruscan alphabet]] to write [[Latin]], and the resulting letter was preserved in the modern [[Latin alphabet]] used to write many languages, including [[English language|English]]. The letter has two [[minuscule]] (lower-case) forms. The form used in most current handwriting consists of a circle and vertical stroke. Most printed material uses a form consisting of a small loop with an arc over it. Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the Uncial version below. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the [[serif]] that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. {| align="center" cellspacing="10" |- align="center" |[[Image:BlackletterA-01.png|Blackletter A]]<br />[[Blackletter]] A |[[Image:UncialA-01.png|Uncial A]]<br />[[Uncial]] A |[[Image:Acap.png|Another Capital A]] |- align="center" |[[Image:ModernRomanA-01.png|Modern Roman A]]<br />Modern Roman A |[[Image:ModernItalicA-01.png|Modern Italic A]]<br />Modern Italic A |[[Image:ModernScriptA-01.png|Modern Script A]]<br />Modern Script A |} ==Usage== In [[English language|English]], the letter A by itself usually denotes the [[lax open front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|æ}}) as in ''pad'', the [[open back unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|ɑ}}) as in ''father'', or, in concert with a later orthographic [[e]], the diphthong {{IPA2|eʲ}} (though the pronunciation varies with the dialect) as in ''ace'', due to effects of the [[Great vowel shift]]. In most other languages that use the Latin alphabet, the letter A denotes either an [[open back unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|ɑ}}), or an [[open central unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|a}}). In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], variants of the letter A denote various [[vowel]]s. In [[X-SAMPA]], capital A denotes the [[open back unrounded vowel]] and lowercase a denotes the [[open front unrounded vowel]]. A also is the English [[indefinite article]], extended to [[an]] before a vowel. ==Codes for computing== {{Letter |NATO=Alpha |Morse=·– |B1=● |B2=○ |B3=○ |B4=○ |B5=○ |B6=○ }} In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] A is codepoint U+0041 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] a is U+0061. In [[Hexadecimal|Hex]], A is the character used to represent decimal 10, or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]], 01010 The [[ASCII]] code for capital A is 65 and for lowercase a is 97; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000001 and 01100001, correspondingly. The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital A is 193 and for lowercase a is 129. The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are "<tt>&amp;#65;</tt>" and "<tt>&amp;#97;</tt>" for upper and lower case respectively. ==Meanings for '''A'''== * As a word; see [[A, an]] * In [[United States|American]] [[Major League Baseball]], the [[Oakland Athletics]] are often simply referred to as the "'''A's'''." * In [[astronomy]], ** A stands for a January 1 through 15 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1760 A1]], the Great Comet of 1760) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl|(4099) 1988 AB|5}}) ** ''a'' is often used to denote the [[semi-major axis]] of an orbit * In [[biochemistry]], A is the symbol for [[alanine]] and [[adenosine]]. * Brassiere [[cup size]] '''A''' * In [[calendar]]s, A is often an abbreviation for the [[month]]s [[April]] and [[August]]. * In [[computing]], ** <tt>&lt;a&gt;</tt> is the [[HTML element#links and anchors|HTML element for an anchor tag]]. ** In Windows, Ctrl-A, and Mac OS, Command-A, selects all the text in the document, or all the pixels of an image. ** A sometimes represents the set of all alphabetic characters within [[character string (computer science)|string]] patterns. ** A:\ is the conventional address of the first floppy disk drive in [[CP/M]]-based [[operating system]]s such as [[DOS]]. ** A is a security division ("Verified Protection") in the [[TCSEC]]. * In [[education]], a [[Grade (education)|grade]] of '''A''' typically represents the highest score that students can achieve. This is sometimes coupled with a [[plus]]/[[minus]] sign, as in '''A+''' or '''A-''', or a number, as in '''A1'''. It is occasionally a grade one level below '''A*''' (pronounced "A Star"). * In [[electronics]], ** [[A battery|A]] is a standard size of [[battery (electricity)|battery]]. ** A refers to the Anode, or filament, component of a [[vacuum tube]]. * In [[English language|English]], the word ''a'' is an indefinite [[article (grammar)|article]], see [[A, an]] * In [[Esperanto#Grammar|Esperanto]], -a is the adjectival/attributive ending; A is commonly an abbreviation meaning English (language). * In [[fiction]], the letter worn by Hester Prynne marking her as an adultress in the [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] novel ''[[The Scarlet Letter]]'' was an ''A''. * In [[film]], ''A'' is an Italian film made in [[1969]]; see ''[[A (film)]]''. * In [[finance]], A is the U.S. [[ticker symbol]] for [[Agilent Technologies]]. * In [[game]]s, the letter A is used to mark each of the [[Ace]]s in a deck of [[playing card]]s. * In [[Greek language|Greek]], a- is a [[prefix]] (''alpha privativum'') meaning "not" or "devoid of," used in many borrowed words in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]] and [[Romance languages]]. * In [[India]] ''A'' is movie rating, given to those intended to be seen only by adults. * In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], A stands for [[Austria]]. * In [[paper size|international paper sizes]], A is a series of sizes with an [[Paper size|aspect ratio]] of roughly 70% width to height, with A4 being an example popular size. * In [[logic]], **the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal affirmative proposition in the general form "all x is y." The letters I, E, and O are used respectively for the particular affirmative "some x is y," the universal negative "no x is y," and the particular negative "some x is not y." The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two [[Latin]] [[verb]]s ''affirmo'' (or AIo), "I assert," and ''nego'', "I deny." The use of the symbols dates from the [[13th century]], though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians. **In [[symbolic logic]], the symbol &forall; (an inverted letter A) is the [[universal quantifier]]. * In [[mathematics]], **A is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[10 (number)|ten]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 11 or greater, **[[blackboard bold]] <math>\mathbb{A}</math> (&#x1D504; in [[Unicode]]) sometimes represents the [[algebraic numbers]]. **In the [[On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences]], each sequence has an ID consisting of the letter A and six base 10 digits. * In [[medicine]], '''A''' (also, '''A+''' or '''A-''') is one of the human [[blood type]]s. * In [[music]], ** A is a [[Pitch class]] or [[note]], see [[A (musical note)]]. ** A, or "side A," refers to the top or first side of a [[vinyl record]]. ** ''A'' is a [[British rock]] band; see ''[[A (band)]]''. ** ''A'' is an album by [[Jethro Tull (band)|Jethro Tull]]; see ''[[A (album)]]''. * In [[nutrition]], A is a [[vitamin]]. * In [[photography]], most SLR cameras use A to signify aperture priority mode, where the user sets the aperture and the camera determines the shutter speed. * In [[poetry]], [[A (poem)|A]] is the major work of influential 20th century author [[Louis Zukofsky]]. * In [[political science|political theory]], a circumscribed "A" is an [[anarchist symbolism|anarchist symbol]]. * As the first letter of a [[postal code]], ** In [[Canada]], A stands for [[Newfoundland and Labrador]]. * On the serial numbers of [[United States dollar]]s, A identifies the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Boston]]. * In the [[SI]] system of units, ** A is the symbol for the [[ampere]] or amp, the [[SI base unit]] of [[electric current]]. ** a, [[atto]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning 10<sup>-18</sup> ** a is the symbol for the [[are]], a unit of surface area equal to 100 [[square metre]]s. * As a [[timezone]], A is the military designation for [[Coordinated Universal Time]]+1, also known as CET or [[Central European Time]]. ==See also== {{Wikisource1911Enc|A}} {{Commons|A}} * [[Alpha (letter)|Alpha]] * [[A (Cyrillic)|Cyrillic A]] * <big>[[ª]]</big> * [[À]] * [[Á]] * [[Â]] * [[Ã]] * [[Ä]] (Ae) * [[Å]] (Aa) * [[Æ]] * [[A-breve|&#258;]] * [[A-ogonek|&#260;]] * [[∀]] <br clear="all" /> {{AZsubnav}} [[Category:Latin letters]] [[Category:Vowels]] [[als:A]] [[ar:A]] [[bs:A]] [[ca:A]] [[cs:A]] [[da:A]] [[de:A]] [[et:A]] [[el:A]] [[es:A]] [[eo:A]] [[fr:A]] [[gl:A]] [[ko:A]] [[hr:A]] [[io:A]] [[id:A]] [[it:A]] [[he:A]] [[kw:A]] [[la:A]] [[hu:A]] [[nl:A]] [[ja:A]] [[no:A]] [[nn:A]] [[pl:A]] [[pt:A]] [[ro:A]] [[ru:А (буква)]] [[sq:A]] [[scn:A]] [[simple:A]] [[sl:A]] [[sr:A (латиничко)]] [[fi:A]] [[sv:A]] [[tl:A]] [[vi:A]] [[tr:A]] [[yo:A]] [[zh:A]] AnarchoCapitalism 291 15899029 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Anarcho-capitalism]] AnarchoCapitalists 293 15899031 2002-10-09T13:47:21Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]] #REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]] ActressesS 296 15899034 2003-11-08T12:13:18Z Minesweeper 7279 fix double redir #REDIRECT [[List of female movie actors]] AnarchisM/AnarchyTalk 298 15899036 2002-10-09T13:47:51Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[talk:Anarchism]] #REDIRECT [[talk:Anarchism]] AnAmericanInParis 299 15899037 2002-05-19T16:44:20Z AxelBoldt 2 fix redir #REDIRECT [[An American in Paris]] AutoMorphism 301 15899038 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Automorphism]] ActionFilm 302 15899039 2002-08-04T00:46:33Z Maveric149 62 #REDIRECT [[Action movie]] Alabama 303 42140365 2006-03-04T02:12:43Z Gregski711 704911 /* Political Climate */ {{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}} <div style="float:right; clear:right; width:300px; margin-left: 1em;"> {{US Confederate state | Name = Alabama | Fullname = State of Alabama | Flag = Flag of Alabama.svg | Flaglink = [[Flag of Alabama]] | Seal = Alabama state seal.png| Map = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Alabama.png | Nickname = Camellia State, The Heart of Dixie[[#Notes|&sup1;]], Yellowhammer State| Capital = [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] | Languages = [[English language|English]] 96.7%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 2.2% | LargestCity = [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] | Governor = [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Bob Riley]] (R)| Senators = [[Richard Shelby]] (R) [[Jeff Sessions]] (R) | PostalAbbreviation = AL | AreaRank = 30<sup>th</sup> | TotalArea = 52,423 mi²/135,775 | LandArea = 50,750 mi²/131,442 | WaterArea = 1,673 mi²/4,333 | PCWater = 3.19 | PopRank = 23<sup>rd</sup> | 2000Pop = 4,447,100 | DensityRank = 26<sup>th</sup> | 2000Density = 33.84 | AdmittanceOrder = 22<sup>nd</sup> | AdmittanceDate = [[December 14]], [[1819]] | SecessionDate = [[January 11]], [[1861]] | ReadmittanceDate = [[July 14]], [[1868]] | TimeZone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-5 | Latitude = 30°13'N to 35°N | Longitude = 84°51'W to 88°28'W | Width = 190 mi/306 | Length = 330 mi/531 | HighestElev = [[Mount Cheaha]] 2,408 ft/734 | MeanElev = 499 ft/152 | LowestElev = 0 ft/0 | ISOCode = US-AL | Website = www.alabama.gov }} [[[[image:AlaUrb.gif |thumb|center|250px|Alabama Cities and Urban Areas/Sprawl]] {| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; clear:right; width:300px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" class="toccolours" |'''[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]'''||''[[Audemus jura nostra defendere]]'' |- |'''[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]'''||[[Northern Flicker|Yellowhammer]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state flowers|State flower]]'''||[[Camellia]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state songs|State song]]'''||"[[Alabama (song)|Alabama]]" |- |'''[[List of U.S. state trees|State tree]]'''||[[Longleaf Pine]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state spirits|State spirit]]'''||[[Conecuh Ridge Whiskey|Conecuh Ridge]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state reptiles|State reptile]]'''||[[Red-bellied turtle]] |} </div> '''Alabama''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] located in the [[Southern United States|Southern]] [[United States]]. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Alabama]]'' The memory of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] presence is particularly strong in Alabama. Among Native American people once living in present Alabama were [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] (Alibamu), [[Cherokee]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], [[Koasati]], and [[Mobile (people)|Mobile]]. Trade with the Northeast via the [[Ohio River]] began during the Burial Mound Period ([[1000 BC]]-A.D. [[700]]) and continued until European contact. Meso-American influence is evident in the agrarian Mississippian culture that followed. The [[France|French]] established the first [[Europe]]an settlement in the state with the establishment of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] in [[1702]]. Southern Alabama was French from [[1702]]&ndash;[[1763]], part of British West Florida from [[1763]]&ndash;[[1780]], and part of Spanish West Florida from [[1780]]&ndash;[[1814]]. Northern and central Alabama was part of British Georgia from [[1763]]&ndash;[[1783]] and part of the American Mississippi territory thereafter. Its statehood delayed by the lack of a coastline (rectified when Andrew Jackson captured Spanish Mobile in [[1814]]), Alabama became the 22nd state in [[1819]]. The state of Alabama seceded from the Union on [[January 11]], [[1861]] and became the [[Alabama Republic]] and on [[February 18]] [[1861]] became a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate state]]. While not many battles were fought in the state, it contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]]. After the war a provisional government was set up in [[1865]] and Alabama was officially readmitted to the Union on July 14 [[1868]]. The cradle of the Confederacy during the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]], Alabama was at stage center in the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement]] of the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. ==Law and government== ''Main article: [[Law and Government of Alabama]]'' ===Local & County Government=== Alabama has 67 [[county|counties]], each having its own elected legislative branch, usually called the Board of Commissioners, which usually also has executive authority in the county. Due to the restraints placed in the [[Alabama Constitution]], all but 7 counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have little to no [[home rule]]. Instead, most counties in the state have to lobby to the Local Legislation Committee the state legislature to get simple local policies such as waste disposal to land use zoning. Alabama is an alcohol monopoly or [[Alcoholic beverage control state]]. ===Political Climate=== The current governor of the state is [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Bob Riley]] and the two U.S. senators are [[Jeff Sessions|Jefferson B. Sessions III]] and [[Richard Shelby|Richard C. Shelby]] (all three from the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]). The current [[Alabama Constitution]] was adopted in [[1901]]. During [[Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]], Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the [[Third Military District]] under [[John Pope (military officer)|General John Pope]]. In [[1877]], the Reconstruction period ended with the recognition of [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] as President-elect. [[White people|White]] Southerners assumed control of the government and passed laws to [[racial segregation|segregate]] and disenfranchise black residents. The state became part of the "[[Solid South]]," a one-party system in which the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] became essentially the only political party in every Southern state. For nearly 100 years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally no Republican challenger running. From [[1876]] through [[1956]], Alabama supported only Democratic presidential candidates, by margins as high as 73 percentage points. In [[1960]], Alabama gave most of its electoral votes to [[Harry F. Byrd]] as a protest. In [[1964]], the national [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] began to win more votes in the South by following a "[[Southern Strategy]]" which emphasized "[[States' rights|states' rights]]" and the increasing liberalism of the national Democratic Party. The first such candidate was conservative [[Barry Goldwater]], who became the first Republican candidate supported by Alabama. In [[1968]], Alabama supported native son and [[American Independent Party]] candidate [[George Wallace]]. The last Democratic candidate to win Alabama's votes in a presidential election was Southerner [[Jimmy Carter]] in [[1976]]. Today, the Republican party has become increasingly dominant in conservative Alabama politics. However, in local politics, Democrats still control many offices, including majorities in both houses of the Legislature, and registered Democrats outnumber Republicans in the state. In 2004, [[George W. Bush]] won Alabama's nine electoral votes by a margin of 25 percentage points with 62.5% of the vote. The only 11 counties voting Democratic were [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] counties, where [[African American]]s are in the majority. Alabama is located in the [[Bible Belt]], and its educational policies reflect this. According to the [[Alan Guttmacher Institute]], Alabama requires sex education classes to emphasize "that [[homosexuality]] is not an acceptable lifestyle to the general public and that homosexual conduct is a criminal offense under the laws of the state." While the mandate is not typically enforced in Alabama classrooms, it is unclear whether or not the official requirements have changed since the Supreme Court's ruling in [[Lawrence v. Texas]]. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], in 2000, Alabama was home to 4,561 same-sex male couples and 4,167 same-sex female couples. *[[U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Alabama]] ==Geography== ''Main article: [[Geography of Alabama]]'' {{ussm|alabama.PNG|al}} Alabama is the 30<sup>th</sup> largest state in the United States with 135,775 km<sup>2</sup> (52,423 mi<sup>2</sup>) of total area. 3.19% of that is water, making Alabama 23<sup>rd</sup> in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second largest inland waterway system in the [[United States]]. About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle [[plain]] with a general incline towards the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The [[North Alabama]] region is mostly mountainous, with the [[Tennessee River]] cutting a large valley creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes. The lowest point east of the [[Mississippi River]] lies in [[Dekalb County]] along a creek cutting tower ridges, and creating [[Buck's Pocket State Park]]. Another natural wonder is "Land Bridge" the longest natural bridge span east of the [[Mississippi River]]. Alabama generally ranges in [[elevation]] from [[sea level]] at [[Mobile Bay]], to a little more than 1800 [[foot (unit)|feet]] or 550 [[metre|meters]] in the Appalachian mountains in the northeast. The highest point is [[Mount Cheaha]]. ==Economy== [[Image:wiki_alabama.jpg|thumb|275px|Greetings from Alabama]] According to the [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the [[2003]] total [[gross state product]] was $132 billion. The [[per capita income]] for the state was $26,505 in 2003. Alabama's [[agricultural]] outputs include [[poultry]] and [[Egg (food)|eggs]], [[cattle]], plant nursery items, [[peanut]]s, [[cotton]], [[grains]] such as [[maize|corn]] and [[sorgum]], [[vegetables]], [[milk]], [[soybeans]], and [[peaches]]. Even though neighboring [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] is called the [[Peach State]], Alabama produces twice as many peaches annually. Its [[Industry|industrial]] outputs include [[iron]] and [[steel]] products, including cast-iron and steel pipe, [[paper]], [[lumber]], and [[wood]] products, [[mining]] (mostly coal), and [[plastic]] products, cars and trucks, and [[apparel]]. Also, Alabama produces [[aerospace]] and [[electronic]] products, mostly in the [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] area, home of the [[NASA]] [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] and the [[United States Army Aviation and Missile Command|US Army Missile Command]], headquartered at [[Redstone Arsenal]]. Also, the city of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] is a busy seaport on the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and with inland waterway access to the Midwest via the [[Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway]]. ==Demographics== {{seesubarticle|Demographics of Alabama}} {| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;" |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations |- ! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population |- | colspan=2|<hr> |- | align="center"| 1800 || align="right"| 1,250 |- | align="center"| 1810 || align="right"| 9,046 |- | align="center"| 1820 || align="right"| 127,901 |- | align="center"| 1830 || align="right"| 309,527 |- | align="center"| 1840 || align="right"| 590,756 |- | align="center"| 1850 || align="right"| 771,623 |- | align="center"| 1860 || align="right"| 964,201 |- | align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 996,992 |- | align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 1,262,505 |- | align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 1,513,401 |- | align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 1,828,697 |- | align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 2,138,093 |- | align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 2,348,174 |- | align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 2,646,248 |- | align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 2,832,961 |- | align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 3,061,743 |- | align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 3,266,740 |- | align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 3,444,165 |- | align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 3,893,888 |- | align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 4,040,587 |- | align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 4,447,100 |} {| |- As of 2005, Alabama has an estimated population of 4,557,808, which is an increase of 32,433, or 0.7%, from the prior year and an increase of 110,457, or 2.5%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 77,418 people (that is 319,544 births minus 242,126 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 36,457 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 25,936 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 10,521 people. The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were illegal aliens (24,000). |} |[[Image:Alabama_population_map.png|thumb|right|300px|Alabama Population Density map]] ===Race and ancestry=== The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census: {{Racial_demographics_begin | year1=2000 | year2=1990 }} {{Racial_demographics_White | year1=71.1% | year2=73.6% }} {{Racial_demographics_Black | year1=26.0% | year2=25.3% }} {{Racial_demographics_Asian | year1=0.7% | year2=0.5% }} {{Racial_demographics_Amerindian | year1=0.5% | year2=0.4% }} {{Racial_demographics_Other | race=Other race | year1=0.7% | year2=0.1% }} {{Racial_demographics_Mixed | year1=1.0% | year2=<center>*</center> }} {{Racial_demographics_Hispanic | year1White=70.3% | year2White=73.3% | year1Hispanic=1.7% | year2Hispanic=0.6% }} {{Racial_demographics_end}} The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama: American (17.0%), [[British American|English]] (7.8%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (7.7%), [[German American|German]] (5.7%), and [[Scots-Irish American|Scotch-Irish]] (2.0%). 'American' includes those reported as Native American or [[African American]]. ===Religion=== The major religions of Alabama: *[[Christian]] &#8211; 92% **[[Protestant]] &#8211; 79% ***[[Baptist]] &#8211; 49% ***[[Methodist]] &#8211; 10% ***[[Presbyterian]] &#8211; 3% ***[[Episcopalian]] &#8211; 2% ***[[Church of God]] &#8211; 2% ***[[Church of Christ]] &#8211; 2% ***[[Pentecostal]] &#8211; 2% ***[[Lutheran]] &#8211; 2% ***Other Protestant &#8211; 7% **[[Catholic]] &#8211; 13% *Other religions &#8211; 1% *Non-religious &#8211; 7% ==Colleges and Universities (incomplete)== {{main|List of colleges and universities in Alabama}} {| |- | valign="top" | *[http://www.au.af.mil/ Air University] *[[Alabama A&M University]] *[[Alabama State University]] *[[Andrew Jackson University]] *[[Athens State University]] *[[Auburn University]] *[[Auburn University Montgomery]] *[[Birmingham-Southern College]] *[[Bishop State Community College]] *[[Calhoun Community College|Calhoun Community College System]] ** [[Calhoun Community College at Decatur|Decatur-Main Campus]] ** [[Calhoun Community College at Cummings Research Park|Huntsville/Cummings Research Park]] ** [[Calhoun Community College at Redstone Arsenal|Redstone Arsenal]] *[[Capps College]] *[[Concordia College-Selma]] *[[Faulkner University]] *[[Heritage Christian University]] *[[Huntingdon College]] *[[Jacksonville State University]] *[[Judson College]] *[[Miles College]] *[[Oakwood College]] *[[Remington College]] *[[Samford University]] *[[Selma University]] *[[Southeastern Bible College]] *[[Southern Christian University]] | valign="top" | *[[Spring Hill College]] *[[Stillman College]] *[[Talladega College]] *[[Troy University System]] (formerly "Troy State University System") **[[Troy University|Main Campus (Troy)]] **[[Troy University at Dothan]] **[[Troy University at Montgomery]] **[[Troy University at Phenix City]] *[[Tuskegee University]] *[[United States Sports Academy]] *[[University of Alabama System]] **[[University of Alabama|Main Campus (Tuscaloosa)]] **[[University of Alabama at Birmingham|Birmingham]] **[[University of Alabama at Huntsville|Huntsville]] *[[University of Mobile]] *[[University of Montevallo]] *[[University of North Alabama]] *[[University of South Alabama]] *[[University of West Alabama]] *[[Virginia College]] |} ==Culture and interests== <small> *[[Famous Alabamians]] *[[Alabama Jubilee Hot Air Balloon Classic]] *[[Music of Alabama]] *[[Alabama Public Television]], state wide public TV network *[[List of television stations in Alabama]] *[[Alabama Shakespeare Festival]] *[[Alabama Sports Festival]] *[[Spirit of America Festival]] *[[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]]/[[U.S. Space Camp]] *[[USS Alabama (BB-60)|USS Alabama]] *[[Rickwood Field]] *[[Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail]] *[[Visionland Theme Park]] *[[Old State Bank]] *[[Vulcan statue]] *[[Mobile Bay jubilee]] *[[Point Mallard Aquatic Center]] *[[Noccalula Falls Park]] </small> ==References== * Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. ''[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=29166058 Alabama: The History of a Deep South State]'' (1994) * Flynt, Wayne. ''Alabama in the Twentieth Century'' (2004) * Owen Thomas M. ''History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography'' 4 vols. 1921. * Jackson, Harvey H. ''Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State'' (2004) * [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=52694010 Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974)] solid reporting on politics and economics 1960-72 * Williams, Benjamin Buford. ''A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century'' 1979. * WPA. ''Guide to Alabama'' (1939) * for a detailed bibliography see [[History of Alabama]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Alabama}} *[http://alabama.gov/ Alabama.gov] - Official website. *[http://www.alarc.org/ Alabama Association of Regional Councils] *[http://www.touralabama.org/ TourAlabama.org] - Alabama Department of Tourism and Travel *[http://www.archives.state.al.us/ Archives.state.al.us] - Alabama Department of Archives and History **[http://www.archives.state.al.us/aaa.html All About Alabama] at the Archives Department site *[http://alguard.state.al.us Alabama National Guard] - Alabama National Guard *[http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeofAlabama/1975/coatoc.htm Code of Alabama 1975] - at the Alabama Legislature site *[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html Alabama QuickFacts] from the U.S. Census Bureau *[http://www.countymapsofalabama.com/ County Maps of Alabama] - Full color maps. List of cities, towns and county seats *[http://www.southernlitreview.com/states/alabama Alabama Literature] from the Southern Literary Review ==Notes== &sup1; The phrase ''The Heart of Dixie'' is required by state law to be included on standard state vehicle license plates, but has recently been reduced to a very small size and eclipsed by the phrase ''Stars Fell on Alabama''. {{Alabama}} {{USPoliticalDivisions}} [[Category:Alabama| ]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:1819 establishments]] [[ang:Alabama]] [[ar:ألاباما]] [[ast:Alabama]] [[bg:Алабама]] [[zh-min-nan:Alabama]] [[bs:Alabama]] [[ca:Alabama]] [[cs:Alabama]] [[cy:Alabama]] [[da:Alabama]] [[de:Alabama (Bundesstaat)]] [[et:Alabama]] [[es:Alabama]] [[eo:Alabamo]] [[fr:Alabama]] [[ga:Alabama]] [[gd:Alabama]] [[gl:Alabama]] [[ko:앨라배마 주]] [[hr:Alabama]] [[io:Alabama]] [[id:Alabama]] [[is:Alabama]] [[it:Alabama]] [[he:אלבמה]] [[ka:ალაბამა (შტატი)]] [[la:Alabama]] [[lv:Alabama]] [[lt:Alabama]] [[lb:Alabama (Bundesstaat)]] [[jbo:alybamys]] [[hu:Alabama]] [[mk:Алабама]] [[ms:Alabama]] [[mo:Алабама]] [[nl:Alabama]] [[ja:アラバマ州]] [[no:Alabama]] [[nn:Alabama]] [[os:Алабамæ (штат)]] [[pl:Alabama]] [[pt:Alabama]] [[ro:Alabama]] [[ru:Алабама (штат)]] [[sq:Alabama]] [[simple:Alabama]] [[sk:Alabama]] [[sl:Alabama]] [[sr:Алабама]] [[fi:Alabama]] [[sv:Alabama]] [[th:มลรัฐแอละแบมา]] [[tr:Alabama]] [[uk:Алабама (штат)]] [[zh:阿拉巴馬州]] AfricA 304 15899041 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Africa]] Achilles 305 41915510 2006-03-02T16:19:19Z Josiah Rowe 210455 /* Other stories about Achilles */ grammar :''For other uses, see [[Achilles (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:The_wrath_of_Achilles.jpg|220px|thumb|right|The wrath of Achilles, by Léon Benouville]]{{Greek myth}}In [[Greek mythology]], '''{{polytonic|&#7944;χιλλεύς}}''', transliterated to '''Akhilleus''' or '''Achilleus'' in Roman letters, Latinized from this ancient Greek to '''Achilles''', appearing in Etruscan as '''Achle''', was a [[hero]] (ancient Greek heros, "defender") of the [[Trojan War]], the greatest and the most [[central character]] of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''. ==Name== The very first two lines of the ''Iliad'' read: :{{Polytonic|μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος}} :{{Polytonic|οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκεν,}} Transliterated: :Mēnin aeide thea, Pēlēiadeō Akhilēos :oulomenēn, hē muri' Akhaiois alge' ethēken, Translated: :Sing, Muse, the wrath of Achilles the son of Peleus, :the destructive wrath, that brought countless griefs upon the Achaeans, [[Image:G-achilles-trojan-wars-bb-l.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Achilles]]In these lines, we see the name Akhilleus Peleides, which is a [[praenomen]] and a [[patronymic]], the latter being formed from Peleus with the suffix -ides producing ''Achilles the son of [[Peleus]]''. The system is similar to the names used by [[Scandinavians]] before modern times, such as Leif Erikson. Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of {{Polytonic|ἄχος}} (''akhos'') "grief" and {{Polytonic|λαός}} (''laos'') "a people, tribe, nation, etc." [http://www.stanford.edu/group/shl/Crowds/hist/laos.htm] In other words, Achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people, grief being a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (frequently by Achilles). Achilles' role as the hero of grief forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of Achilles as the hero of ''kleos'' (glory, usually glory in war). ''Laos'' has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean ''a corps of soldiers''. With this derivation, the name would have a double meaning in the poem: When the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring grief to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership. ==Birth== Achilles was the son of the mortal [[Peleus]], king of the [[Myrmidons]] in [[Phthia]] (southeast [[Thessaly]]), and the sea nymph [[Thetis]]. [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until [[Prometheus]] the fire-bringer prophesized that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed to Peleus. When Achilles was born, according to the most common version of the myth, Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]]. But she forgot to wet the heel she held him by, leaving him vulnerable at that spot. (See [[Achilles' tendon]].) In an earlier and less popular version of the story, Thetis anointed the boy in [[ambrosia]] and put him on top of a fire to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. Homer does not make reference to this invulnerability in the [[Iliad]]. To the contrary, he mentions Achilles being wounded, although not seriously. Peleus gave him (together with his young friend or lover [[Patroclus]]) to [[Chiron]] the [[Centaur]], on Mt. [[Pelion]], to be raised. ==Achilles in the Trojan War== ===Telephus=== When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in [[Mysia]], ruled by King [[Telephus]]. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". According to other reports in [[Euripides]]' lost play about Telephus, he went to [[Aulis]] pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. [[Odysseus]] reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed. This is an example of [[sympathetic magic]]. ===During the Trojan War=== [[Image:The_Rage_of_Achilles_by_Giovanni_Battista_Tiepolo.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|“The Rage of Achilles” by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]].]] In Homer's Iliad, Achilles is the only mortal to experience consuming rage (''menon''). His anger is at some times wavering, at other times absolute. The humanization of Achilles by the events of the war is an important theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''. Achilles' [[charioteer]]'s name was [[Automedon]]. ====Troilus==== According to [[Dares Phrygius]]' ''Account of the Destruction of Troy'' [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/DaresTW.html], while [[Troilus]], the youngest son of [[Priam]] and [[Hecuba]] (whom some say was fathered by [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]]), was watering his horses at the Lion Fountain outside the walls of Troy, Achilles saw him and fell in love with his beauty (whose "loveliness of form" was described by [[Ibycus]] as being like "gold thrice refined"). The youth rejected his advances and took refuge inside the temple of Apollo. Achilles pursued him into the sanctuary and decapitated him on the god's own altar. ([[John Tzetzes|Tzetzes]], [[scholiast]] on [[Lycophron]]). At the time, Troilus was said to be a year short of his twentieth birthday, and the legend goes that if Troilus had lived to be twenty, Troy would have been invincible. ([[First Vatican Mythographer]]) ====Agamemnon and the death of Patroclus==== [[Image:Patrocluspederastyscene.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Patroclus]] and Achilles. Achilles bandages the arm of his friend Patroclus. The latter turns his head aside to avoid the sight of blood and of Achilles noticing his pain grimaces. The scene has been interpreted as an act of welfare and comradeship, or as a scene with sexual overtones. Ancient Greek culture often held the two [[Iliad#The_relationship_of_Achilles_and_Patroclus|to be lovers]].]] Achilles took 23 towns outside [[Troy]], including [[Lyrnessos]], where he captured [[Briseis]] to keep as a [[concubine]]. Meanwhile, [[Agamemnon]] took a woman named [[Chryseis]] and taunted her father, [[Chryses]], a priest of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], when he attempted to buy her back. Apollo sent a plague through the Greek armies, and Agamemnon was forced to give Chryseis back to her father; however, he took Briseis away from Achilles as compensation for his loss. This action sparked the central plot of the [[Iliad]]: Achilles becomes enraged and refuses to fight for the Greeks any further. The war goes badly, through the influence of [[Zeus]], and the Greeks offer handsome reparations to their greatest warrior. After the Greeks are pushed back to the ships, which are just starting to be set on fire by the Trojan hero [[Hector]], Achilles is visited by [[Odysseus]], [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax]], and [[Phoenix (Iliad)|Phoenix]], who attempt to persuade him to return to battle. Achilles still refuses to fight, but agrees to allow [[Patroclus]] to fight in his place, wearing his armor. The next day, [[Patroclus]] is killed and stripped of the armor by Hector, who mistakes him for Achilles. Achilles is overwhelmed with grief for his beloved friend, and the rage he once harbored toward Agamemnon begins shifting to Hector. Thetis, his mother, rises from the sea floor and sympathizes with his grief. She obtains magnificent new armor for him from [[Hephaestus]]. The goddess [[Athena]] provides him with the [[aegis]] of Zeus. When he goes to the battlefield, the entire Trojan army flees behind the walls of Troy. Achilles' wrath is terrible, and he slays many Trojan warriors and allies, including Priam's son [[Lycaon]] (whom Achilles had previously captured and sold into slavery, but who had been returned to Troy). Eventually Hector comes out of the walls to defend the honour of Troy. He asked Achilles to agree that the body of the loser would be returned for proper burial by the winner. Achilles rejected this arrangement, saying, "Though twenty ransoms and thy weight in gold were offered, I would refuse it all." Stories tell that Hector ran about Troy seven times and Achilles followed him, however seeing that Achilles would not be outrun, Hector stood his ground and fought. Other versions of the tale say that Achilles chased after Hector two times, and one time he was delivered by the gods, however, on their second encounter, Achilles trapped Hector and challenged him. After a legendary fight, Achilles kills Hector. Influenced by his anger, he drags the body of Hector behind his chariot round the walls of Troy three times, and refuses to allow it to receive [[funeral rites]]. Much to the dismay of Achilles, the body of Hector miraculously heals and will not decay as normally expected. [[Aphrodite]], the goddess of love who sided with Troy throughout the whole conflict, put a protective barrier over [[Hector]], which kept him looking like he did before he was viciously killed by Achilles. When [[Priam]], the king of Troy and Hector's father, comes secretly into the Greek camp to plead for the body, Achilles finally relents; in one of the most moving scenes of the ''Iliad'', he receives Priam graciously and allows him to take the body away. The scene is intensely moving because [[Priam]], the king of one of the greatest cities in the known world, kneels down, old and frail as he is, and kisses the hands of the man who killed his son. The greatness of Achilles lies in not just being the greatest Greek fighter ever, but in knowing the choice provided to him by [[Destiny]]. His mother Thetis had prophesied to him that if he pulled out of the [[Trojan War]], he would enjoy a long and a happy life. If Achilles fought, however, he would die before the walls of [[Troy]] but assure an everlasting glory, surpassing that of all other heroes. He had made the choice, and coming face to face with it showed his greatness. ====Xanthos==== During the [[Trojan War]], [[Balius and Xanthos|Xanthos]], one of Achilles' horses, was rebuked by Achilles for allowing [[Patroclus]] to be killed. Xanthos responded by saying (Hera temporarily gave him voice to do so) that a god and a mortal had killed Patroclus and a god and a mortal would soon kill Achilles too. ====Memnon, Cycnus, Penthesilea, and the death of Achilles==== [[Image:TBanksThetis.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Thetis rising from the sea to comfort Achilles'' (Book 18), by [[Thomas Banks]], English, [[1778]] [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].]] Shortly after the death of [[Hector]], Achilles defeated [[Memnon]] of [[Ethiopia]], [[Cycnus]] of [[Colonae]] and the [[Amazons|Amazonian]] warrior [[Penthesilia]] (with whom Achilles also had an affair in some versions). As predicted by [[Hector]] with his dying breath, Achilles was thereafter killed by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] &mdash; either by an arrow to the heel (which may have subsequently become fatally infected, and is said to have been guided by [[Apollo]]), or in an older version by a knife to the back while visiting [[Polyxena]], a princess of Troy. Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor, and Achilles remains undefeated on the battlefield (Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles). His bones are mingled with those of [[Patroclus]], and funeral games are held. Like Ajax, he is represented (although not by [[Homer]]) as living after his death in the island of [[Leuke]] at the mouth of the [[Danube]]. ====The fate of Achilles' armor==== Achilles' armor was the object of a feud between [[Odysseus]] and [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax the Greater]] (Achilles' older cousin). They competed for it and Odysseus won. Ajax went mad with grief and vowed to kill his comrades; he started killing cattle (thinking they were Greek soldiers), and then himself. ==Other stories about Achilles== Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of [[Lycomedes]], king of [[Skyros]]. There, Achilles was disguised as a girl and lived among Lycomedes' daughters under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter [[Deidamea|Deidamia]], Achilles fathered a son, [[Neoptolemus]] (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's alias). According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet [[Calchas]] that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. He went to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewelry, but placed a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Trojan campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend the court, thus giving his identity away. The story about Achilles in [[drag (clothing)|drag]] is not found in Homer. In Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', there is a passage in which Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave than be dead. This has been interpreted as a rejection of his warrior life, but also as indignity to his martyrdom being slighted. The kings of [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son. [[Alexander the Great]], son of the Epiran princess [[Olympias]], could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor; he is said to have visited his tomb while passing Troy. Achilles was worshipped as a sea-god in many of the [[Greek colonies]] on the [[Black Sea]]. The [[homosexual]] [[Achilles and Patroclus|relationship between Achilles and Patroclus]] is something much explored in post-[[Homeric]] literature. By the fifth and fourth centuries, the deep — and arguably ambiguous — friendship portrayed in Homer blossomed into an unequivocal love affair in the works of [[Aeschylus]], [[Plato]], and [[Aeschines]], and seems to have inspired the enigmatic verses in [[Lycophron]]'s third century ''Alexandra'' that claim Achilles slayed Troilus in a matter of unrequited love. Achilles fought and killed the [[Amazons|Amazon]] [[Helene (mythology)|Helene]]. Some also said he married [[Medea]], and that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades - as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' [[Argonautica]]. ==Achilles in lost plays== In the early [[1990]]s a lost play by [[Aeschylus]] was discovered in the wrappings of a [[mummy]] in [[Egypt]]. The play, ''[[Achilles (play)|Achilles]]'', was part of a [[trilogy]] about the [[Trojan War]]. It was known to exist due to mentions in ancient sources, but had been lost for over 2,000 years. Another lost play by Aeschylus, ''The Myrmidons'', focussed on the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus; only a few lines survive today. There is another lost play with Achilles as the main character, ''The Lovers of Achilles'', by [[Sophocles]]. ==Spoken-word myths (audio)== {| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" |- ! style="background:#ffdead;" | Achilles myths as told by story tellers |- |[[Media:Achilles and Patroclus wiki.ogg|'''1. Achilles and Patroclus,''' read by Timothy Carter]] |- |Bibliography of reconstruction: [[Homer]] ''Iliad,'' 9.308, 16.2, 11.780, 23.54 ([[700 BC]]); [[Pindar]] ''[[Olympian Odes]],'' IX ([[476 BC]]); [[Aeschylus]] ''Myrmidons,'' F135-36 ([[495 BC]]); [[Euripides]] ''Iphigenia in Aulis,'' ([[405 BC]]); [[Plato]] ''Symposium,'' 179e ([[388 BC]]-[[367 BC]]); [[Statius]] ''Achilleid,'' 161, 174, 182 ([[96]] CE) |- |} ==Achilles in music== Achilles has frequently been mentioned in music. *"Achilles, Agony & Ecstasy In Eight Parts", by [[Manowar]]; from the album ''The Triumph of Steel'', [[1992]], [[Atlantic Records]]. *"[[Achilles Last Stand]]", by [[Led Zeppelin]]; from the album ''Presence'', [[1976]], Atlantic Records. *"Achilles' Revenge" is a song by [[Warlord (band)|Warlord]]. *Achilles' Heel is an album by the indie rock band [[Pedro the Lion]]. *Achilles and his heel are referenced in the song "Special K" by the rock band [[Placebo (band)|Placebo]]. *Achilles is referred to in [[Bob Dylan]]'s song, "Temporary Like Achilles". *"Achilles' Heel" is a song by the UK band [[Toploader]]. *"Achilles" is a song by the Colorado-based power metal band [[Jag Panzer]], from the album ''Casting the Stones''. *Achilles is referenced in the [[Indigo Girls]] song "Ghost". ==Achilles in film== The role of Achilles has been played by: * [[Stanley Baker]] in ''[[Helen of Troy (movie)|Helen of Troy]]'' ([[1956]]) * [[Arturo Dominici]] in ''[[La Guerra di Troia (movie)|La Guerra di Troia]]'' ([[1962]]) * [[Derek Jacobi]] [voice] in Achilles (Channel Four Television) ([[1995]]) * [[Steve Davislim]] in ''[[La Belle Hélène (TV movie)|La Belle Hélène]]'' (TV, [[1996]]) * [[Joe Montana (actor)|Joe Montana]] in ''[[Helen of Troy (TV movie)|Helen of Troy]]'' (TV, [[2003]]) * [[Brad Pitt]] in ''[[Troy (movie)|Troy]]'' (2004) ==Namesakes== * The [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] gave the name [[HMNZS Achilles (70)|HMNZS ''Achilles'']] to an [[British A class destroyer|''A'' class]] [[destroyer]] which served in [[World War II]]. ==References== *[[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' *[[Homer]], [[Odyssey|''Odyssey'' XI]], 467-540 *[[Apollodorus]], ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' III, xiii, 5-8 *[[Apollodorus]], [[Epitome III|''Epitome'' III]], 14-V, 7 *[[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' XI, 217-265; XII, 580-XIII, 398 *[[Ovid]], [[Heroides|''Heroides'' III]] *[[Apollonius Rhodius]], [[Argonautica|''Argonautica'' IV]], 783-879 *[[Dante]], ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'', Inferno, V. ==Bibliography== * Ileana Chirassi Colombo, “Heros Achilleus— Theos Apollon.” In ''Il Mito Greco'', éd. Bruno Gentili & Giuseppe Paione, Rome, 1977; * Anthony Edwards: ** “Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis”, ''Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies'', 26 (1985): pp. 215-227 ; ** “Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic”, ''Beitrage zur klassischen Philologie'', 171, Meisenheim, 1985 ; ** “Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory,” ''Classical Quarterly'', 38 (1988): pp. 25-30 ; * Hélène Monsacré, ''Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère'', Paris, Albin Michel, 1984; * [[Gregory Nagy]]: ** ''The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry'', Johns Hopkins University, 1999 (rev. edition); ** ''The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology''', ''Illinois Classical Studies'', 19, 1994; * Dale S. Sinos, ''The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic'', Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University; * Johansson, Warren. ''Achilles.'' [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm '''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality.'''] Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. p. 8 ==External links== {{commons|Category:Achilles}} * [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ The Story of Achilles and Patroclus] * [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/troy.html Trojan War Resources] [[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]] [[Category:Anti-heroes|Achilles]] [[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]] <!-- interwiki --> {{Link FA|fr}} [[ar:أخيل]] [[bg:Ахил]] [[ca:Aquil·les]] [[da:Achilleus]] [[de:Achilleus]] [[et:Achilleus]] [[el:Αχιλλέας]] [[es:Aquiles]] [[eo:Aĥilo]] [[fa:آشیل]] [[fr:Achille]] [[gl:Aquiles]] [[ko:아킬레우스]] [[hr:Ahilej]] [[it:Achille]] [[he:אכילס]] [[la:Achilles]] [[lt:Achilas]] [[lb:Achilleus]] [[hu:Akhilleusz]] [[nl:Achilles]] [[ja:アキレウス]] [[no:Akilles]] [[pl:Achilles (mitologia)]] [[pt:Aquiles]] [[ru:Ахиллес]] [[sk:Achilles]] [[sl:Ahil]] [[fi:Akhilleus]] [[sv:Akilles]] [[uk:Ахіллес]] [[zh:阿基琉斯]] AppliedStatistics 306 15899043 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Applied statistics]] Abraham Lincoln 307 42155236 2006-03-04T04:35:40Z Naconkantari 676502 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Bennettsnider|Bennettsnider]] ([[User talk:Bennettsnider|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari :''For other uses of the name Abraham Lincoln, see [[Abraham Lincoln (disambiguation)]]'' {{Infobox_President | name=Abraham Lincoln | nationality=American | image=Abraham Lincoln head on shoulders photo portrait.jpg | order=16th President | term_start=[[March 4]], [[1861]] | term_end=[[April 15]], [[1865]] | predecessor=[[James Buchanan]] | successor=[[Andrew Johnson]] | birth_date=[[February 12]], [[1809]] | birth_place=[[Hardin County, Kentucky]] (now in [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue County]]) | death_date=[[April 15]], [[1865]] | death_place=[[Washington, D.C.]] | spouse=[[Mary Todd Lincoln]] | party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] | vicepresident=[[Hannibal Hamlin]] (1861 to 1865); [[Andrew Johnson]] (March - April 1865) }} '''Abraham Lincoln''' ([[February 12]], [[1809]] – [[April 15]], [[1865]]), sometimes called '''Abe Lincoln''' and nicknamed '''Honest Abe''', the '''Rail Splitter''', and the '''Great Emancipator''', was the 16th [[President of the United States]] (1861 to 1865), and the first president from the [[History of United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]. Lincoln opposed the expansion of slavery and oversaw the Union war effort during the [[American Civil War]]. He selected the generals and approved their strategy; selected senior civilian officials; supervised diplomacy, patronage and party affairs; rallied public opinion through messages and speeches such as the [[Gettysburg Address]]; and took personal charge of plans for the [[Emancipation Proclamation|abolition of slavery]] and the [[Reconstruction]] of the Union. He was assassinated as the war ended by [[John Wilkes Booth]]. ==Role in history== President Lincoln was opposed to what he saw as the [[Slave Power]] and staunchly opposed its efforts to expand [[history of slavery in the United States|slavery]] into federal territories. His victory in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 presidential election]] further polarized an already divided nation. Before his inauguration in March of 1861, seven [[Southern United States|Southern]] states [[secession|seceded]] from the [[United States]], formed the [[Confederate States of America]], and took control of U.S. forts and other properties within their boundaries. These events soon led to the [[American Civil War]]. Lincoln is often praised for his work as a wartime leader who proved adept at balancing competing considerations and at getting rival groups to work together toward a common goal. Lincoln had to negotiate between [[Radical Republican|Radical]] and Moderate Republican leaders, who were often far apart on the issues, while attempting to win support from [[War Democrats]] and loyalists in the seceding states. He personally directed the war effort, in close cooperation (1864-65) with General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] which ultimately led the Union forces to victory over the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. His leadership qualities were evident in his diplomatic handling of the border slave states at the beginning of the fighting, in his defeat of a congressional attempt to reorganize his cabinet in 1862, in his many speeches and writings which helped mobilize and inspire the North, and in his defusing of the peace issue in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864 presidential campaign]]. [[Copperheads (politics)|Copperheads]] vehemently criticized him for violating the Constitution, overstepping the bounds of executive power, refusing to compromise on slavery, declaring [[martial law]], suspending [[habeas corpus]], ordering the arrest of thousands of public officials and a number of newspaper publishers, and killing hundreds of thousands of young men. [[Radical Republicans]] criticized him for going too slow on abolition of slavery, and not being ruthless enough toward the conquered South. Lincoln is most famous for his roles in preserving the Union and ending [[slavery]] in the United States with the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]. However, some abolitionists criticized him for only freeing the slaves under the Confederacy in 1863, and waiting until 1865 to free slaves held in the Union. Historians have argued that Lincoln had a lasting influence on U.S. political and social institutions, importantly setting a precedent for greater centralization of powers in the federal government and the weakening of the powers of the individual [[state government]]s. Lincoln spent most of his attention on military matters and politics but with his strong support his administration established the current system of [[national bank]]s with the [[National Bank Act]]. He increased the [[Morrill tariff|tariff]] to raise revenue and encourage factories, imposed the first [[Income tax in the United States|income tax]], issued hundreds of millions of dollars of bonds and Greenbacks, encouraged immigration from Europe, built the [[First Transcontinental Railroad|transcontinental railroad]], set up the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]], encouraged farm ownership with the [[Homestead Act]] of 1862, and set up the modern system of state universities with the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]]. During the war his Treasury department effectively controlled all cotton trade in the occupied South--the most dramatic incursion of federal controls on the economy. During his administration [[West Virginia]] and [[Nevada]] were admitted as states. Lincoln is usually [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|ranked as one of the greatest presidents]]. Because of his roles in destroying slavery, redefining national values, and saving the Union, his [[assassination]] made him a [[martyr]] to millions of Americans. However, others considered him an unconstitutional tyrant for declaring martial law, suspending civil liberties, habeas corpus, and the First Amendment, and ordering the arrest of thousands of public officials and newspaper publishers. ==Early life== Abraham Lincoln was born on [[February 12]], [[1809]], in a one-room [[log cabin]] on the 348 acre (1.4 km&sup2;) Sinking Spring Farm in the Southeast part of [[Hardin County, Kentucky]], then considered the [[frontier]] (now part of [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue Co.]], in Nolin Creek, three miles (5 km) south of [[Hodgenville, Kentucky|Hodgenville]]), to [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Hanks]]. Lincoln was named after his deceased grandfather, who was [[scalping|scalped]] in 1786 in an Indian raid. He had no middle name. Lincoln's parents were uneducated, illiterate farmers. When Lincoln became famous, reporters and storytellers often exaggerated the poverty and obscurity of his birth. However Lincoln's father Thomas was a respected and relatively affluent citizen of the Kentucky backcountry. He had purchased the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site|Sinking Spring Farm]] in December 1808 for $200 cash and assumption of a debt. His parents belonged to a Baptist church that had pulled away from a larger church because they refused to support slavery. From a very young age, Lincoln was exposed to anti-slavery sentiment. However he never joined his parents' church, or any other church, and as a youth ridiculed religion. Three years after purchasing the property, a prior land claim filed in Hardin Circuit Court forced the Lincolns to move. Thomas continued legal action until he lost the case in 1815. Legal expenses contributed to family difficulties. In 1811, they were able to lease 30 acres (0.1 km&sup2;) of a 230 acre (0.9 km&sup2;) farm on Knob Creek a few miles away, where they then moved. In a valley of the [[Rolling Fork River]], this was some of the best farmland in the area. At this time, Lincoln's father was a respected community member and a successful farmer and carpenter. Lincoln's earliest recollections are from this farm. In 1815, another claimant sought to eject the family from the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site|Knob Creek farm]]. Frustrated with litigation and lack of security provided by Kentucky courts, Thomas decided to move to [[Indiana]], which had been surveyed by the federal government, making land titles more secure. It is possible that these episodes motivated Abraham to later learn surveying and become an attorney. In 1816, when Lincoln was seven years old, he and his parents moved to [[Spencer County, Indiana]], he would state "partly on account of slavery" and partly because of economic difficulties in Kentucky. In 1818, Lincoln's mother died of "[[milk sickness]]" at age thirty four, when Abe was nine. Soon afterwards, Lincoln's father remarried to Sarah Bush Johnston. Sarah Lincoln raised young Lincoln like one of her own children. Years later she compared Lincoln to her own son, saying "Both were good boys, but I must say — both now being dead that Abe was the best boy I ever saw or ever expect to see." (''Lincoln'', by David Herbert Donald, 1995) In 1830, after more economic and land-title difficulties in Indiana, the family settled on government land on a site selected by Lincoln's father in [[Macon County, Illinois]]. The following winter was especially brutal, and the family nearly moved back to Indiana. When his father relocated the family to a nearby site the following year, the 22-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own, [[canoe]]ing down the Sangamon to [[Sangamon County, Illinois]] (now in [[Menard County, Illinois|Menard County]]), in the village of [[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem]]. Later that year, hired by New Salem businessman [[Denton Offutt]] and accompanied by friends, he took goods from New Salem to [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] via [[flatboat]] on the Sangamon, [[Illinois River|Illinois]] and [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] [[river]]s. While in New Orleans, he may have witnessed a slave auction that left an indelible impression on him for the rest of his life. Whether he actually witnessed a slave auction at that time or not, living in a country with a considerable slave presence, he probably saw similar atrocities from time to time. His formal education consisted of perhaps 18 months of schooling from itinerant teachers. In effect he was self-educated, studying every book he could borrow. He mastered the Bible, Shakespeare, English history and American history, and developed a plain style that puzzled audiences more used to orotund oratory. He avoided hunting and fishing because he did not like killing animals even for food and, though unusually tall and strong, spent so much time reading that some neighbors thought he must be doing it to avoid strenuous manual labor. He was skilled with an axe—they called him the "rail splitter"—and a good wrestler. [[Image:Abe_Lincoln_young.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Young Abraham Lincoln]] ==Early career== Lincoln began his political career in 1832 at the age of 23 with a campaign for the [[Illinois General Assembly]] as a member of the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]]. The centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the [[Sangamon River]] in the hopes of attracting [[steamboat]] traffic to the river, which would allow sparsely populated, poor areas along and near the river to grow and prosper. He served as a captain in a company of the [[Illinois]] [[militia]] drawn from New Salem during the [[Black Hawk War]], although he never saw combat. He wrote after being elected by his peers that he had not had "any such success in life which gave him so much satisfaction." He later tried and failed at several small-time business ventures. He held an Illinois state [[liquor]] license and sold whiskey. Finally, after coming across the second volume of [[Sir William Blackstone]]'s four-volume ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'', he taught himself the [[law]], and was admitted to the [[Illinois State Bar Association|Illinois Bar]] in 1837. That same year, he moved to [[Springfield, Illinois]] and began to practice law with [[Stephen T. Logan]]. He became one of the most respected and successful lawyers in the prairie state, and grew steadily more prosperous. Lincoln served four successive terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]], as a representative from [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]], beginning in 1834. He became a leader of the Whig party in the legislature. In 1837 he made his first protest against slavery in the Illinois House, stating that the institution was "founded on both injustice and bad policy." [http://www.hti.umich.edu/l/lincoln/] Lincoln shared a bed with [[Joshua Fry Speed]] from 1837 to 1841 in Springfield. While many historians claim it was not uncommon in the mid-19th century for men to share a bed (just as two men today may share a house or an apartment), gay activist [[C. A. Tripp]] generated controversy with his 2005 book ''[[The Intimate World of Abraham Lincoln]]'', which suggested their relationship may also have been sexual. In 1841, Lincoln entered law practice with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], a fellow Whig. In 1856, both men joined the fledgling [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. Following Lincoln's assassination, Herndon began collecting stories about Lincoln from those who knew him in central Illinois, eventually publishing a book, ''Herndon's Lincoln''. Lincoln never joined an antislavery society and denied he supported the abolitionists. He married into a prominent slave-owning family from Kentucky, and allowed his children to spend time there surrounded by slaves. Several of his in-laws became Confederate officers. He greatly admired the science that flourished in New England, and was perhaps the only father in Illinois at the time to send his son, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], to elite eastern schools, [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] and [[Harvard College]]. ==Marriage== On [[November 4]], [[1842]], at the age of 33, Lincoln married [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]]. The couple had four sons. *[[Robert Todd Lincoln]]: b. [[August 1]], [[1843]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[July 26]], [[1926]], in [[Manchester, Vermont]]. *[[Edward Baker Lincoln]]: b. [[March 10]], [[1846]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[February 1]], [[1850]], in Springfield, Illinois. *[[William Wallace Lincoln]]: b. [[December 21]], [[1850]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[February 20]], [[1862]], in Washington, D.C. *[[Thomas (Tad) Lincoln]]: b. [[April 4]], [[1853]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[July 16]], [[1871]], in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. Only Robert survived into adulthood. Of Robert's three children, only [[Jessie Harlan Lincoln|Jessie Lincoln]] had any children (two: Mary Lincoln Beckwith and Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith). Neither Robert Beckwith nor Mary Beckwith had any children, so Abraham Lincoln's bloodline ended when Robert Beckwith (Lincoln's great-grandson) died on [[December 24]], [[1985]]. [http://members.aol.com/beaufait/biography/geneology.htm] ==Illinois politics== [[Image:Abelincoln1846.jpeg|thumb|Lincoln in 1846 or 1847]] In 1846, Lincoln was elected to one term in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. A staunch Whig, Lincoln often referred to party leader [[Henry Clay]] as his political idol. As a freshman House member, Lincoln was not a particularly powerful or influential figure in Congress. He used his office as an opportunity to speak out against the [[Mexican-American War|war]] with [[Mexico]], which he attributed to [[James Knox Polk|President Polk]]'s desire for "military glory — that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood." Lincoln was a key early supporter of [[Zachary Taylor]]'s candidacy for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1848|1848 '''Whig Presidential nomination]]. When Lincoln's term ended, the incoming Taylor administration offered him the governorship of remote [[Oregon Territory]]. Acceptance would end his career in the fast-growing state of Illinois, so he declined. Returning instead to [[Springfield, Illinois]] he turned''' most of his energies to making a living at the [[bar (law)|bar]], which involved extensive travel on horseback from county to county. ==Prairie lawyer== By the mid-1850s, Lincoln faced competing transportation interests — both the river [[barge]]s and the [[railroad]]s. In 1849, he received a patent related to buoying vessels. Lincoln represented the [[Alton & Sangamon Railroad]] in an 1851 dispute with one of its shareholders, [[James A. Barret]]. Barret had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to that corporation on the grounds that it had changed its originally planned route. Lincoln argued that as a matter of law a corporation is not bound by its original charter when that charter can be amended in the public interest, that the newer proposed Alton & Sangamon route was superior and less expensive, and that accordingly the corporation had a right to sue Mr. Barret for his delinquent payment. He won this case, and the decision by the [[Illinois Supreme Court]] was eventually cited by several other courts throughout the United States. Another important example of Lincoln's skills as a railroad lawyer was a lawsuit over a tax exemption that the state granted to the [[Illinois Central Railroad]]. [[McLean County, Illinois|McLean County]] argued that the state had no authority to grant such an exemption, and it sought to impose taxes on the railroad notwithstanding. In January 1856, the Illinois Supreme Court delivered its opinion upholding the tax exemption, accepting Lincoln's arguments. Lincoln's most notable criminal trial came in 1858 when he defended [[William "Duff" Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of [[James Preston Metzker]]. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of [[judicial notice]], a rare tactic at that time, to show an eyewitness had lied on the stand, claiming he witnessed the crime in the moonlight. Lincoln produced a [[Farmer's Almanac]] to show that the moon on that date was at such a low angle it could not have produced enough illumination to see anything clearly. Based upon this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted. ==Republican politics 1854-1860== The [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]] of 1854, which expressly repealed the limits on slavery's spread that had been part of the [[Missouri Compromise]] of 1820, drew Lincoln back into politics. Illinois Democrat [[Stephen A. Douglas]], the most powerful man in the Senate, proposed [[popular sovereignty]] as the solution to the slavery impasse, incorporating it into the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Douglas argued that in a democracy the people of a territory should decide whether to allow slavery or not, and not have a decision imposed on them by Congress. It was a speech against Kansas-Nebraska, on [[October 16]], [[1854]] in [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]], that caused Lincoln to stand out among the other [[free soil]] orators of the day. He helped form the new Republican party, drawing on remnants of the old Whig, [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]], Liberty and Democratic parties. In a stirring campaign, the Republicans carried Illinois in 1854, and elected a senator. Lincoln was the obvious choice, but to keep party unity he allowed the election to go to his colleague [[Lyman Trumbull]]. In 1857-58 Douglas broke with President [[James Buchanan|Buchanan]], leading to a terrific fight for control of the Democratic party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas in 1858, since he led the opposition to the administration's push for the [[Lecompton Constitution]] which would have admitted Kansas as a [[slave state]]. Accepting the Republican nomination for the Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered a famous speech [http://www.nationalcenter.org/HouseDivided.html] in which he stated, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." The speech created a lasting image of the danger of disunion due to slavery, and rallied Republicans across the north. The 1858 campaign featured the [[Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858|Lincoln-Douglas debates]], a nationally noticed discussion on the issues that threatened to split the nation in two. Lincoln forced Douglas to propose his [[Freeport Doctrine]], which lost him further support among slave-holders and speeded the division of the Democratic Party. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats and the legislature reelected Douglas to the Senate. Nevertheless, Lincoln's eloquence transformed him into a national political star. During the debates of 1858 the issue of race was often discussed. During a time period when racial egalitarianism was considered politically incorrect, Stephen Douglas would inform the crowds, “If you desire negro citizenship…if you desire them to vote on an equality with yourselves… then support Mr. Lincoln and the Black Republican party, who are in favor of the citizenship of the negro.” [http://www.nps.gov/liho/debate1.htm (Official Records of Debate)] On the defensive Lincoln countered that he was “not in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races.” [http://www.nps.gov/liho/debate4.htm (Official Records of Debate)] Historians generally remained mixed on what Lincoln’s actual views were on race. However, many tend to doubt that the highly political nature of these debates offer reliable evidence about his personal views. (Team of Rivals, by Doris Kearns Goodwin, 2005) (Lincoln: In Text and Context, by Donald Fehrenbacher, 1987) As Fredrick Douglass observed, “[Lincoln was] the first great man that I talked with in the United States freely who in no single instance reminded me of the difference between himself and myself, of the difference of color.” (Life and Times of Fredrick Douglass, by Fredrick Douglass, 1895) Lincoln's opposition to slavery was opposition to the [[Slave Power]], and he was not an abolitionist in 1858. But the Civil War changed everything, and changed Lincoln's beliefs in race relations as well. ==Election of 1860== [[Image:The Rail Candidate.jpg|thumb|"The Rail Candidate", political cartoon, 1860]] Entering the presidential nomination process as a distinct underdog, Lincoln was eventually chosen as the Republican candidate for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 election]] for several reasons. His expressed views on slavery were seen as more moderate than rivals [[William H. Seward]] and [[Salmon Chase]]. His "western" origins also appealed to the newer states. Other contenders, especially those with more governmental experience, had acquired enemies within the party, specifically Seward, who had run afoul of newspaperman [[Horace Greeley]]. During the campaign, Lincoln was dubbed "The Rail Splitter" by Republicans to emphasize the power of "free labor," whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts. On [[November 6]], [[1860]], Lincoln was elected the 16th President of the United States, beating Democrat Douglas, [[John C. Breckenridge]] of the Southern Democrats, and [[John C. Bell]] of the new [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]]. Lincoln was the first Republican president. He won entirely on the strength of his support in the North: he was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South — and won only 2 of 996 counties there. Lincoln gained 1,865,908 votes (39.9% of the total,) for 180 electoral votes, Douglas 1,380,202 (29.5%) for 12 electoral votes, Breckenridge 848,019 (18.1%) for 72 electoral votes, and Bell 590,901 (12.5%) for 39 electoral votes. There were fusion tickets in some states, but even if his opponents had combined in every state, Lincoln had a majority vote in all but two of the states in which he won the electoral votes, and would still have won the electoral college and the election. ==Secession winter 1860-61== As Lincoln's election became more and more probable, secessionists made it clear that their states would leave the Union. South Carolina took the lead followed by six other [[cotton]]-growing states: Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The upper South (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to and rejected the secessionist appeal. They decided to stay in the Union, though warning Lincoln they would not support an invasion through their territory. The seven Confederate states seceded before Lincoln took office, declaring themselves an entirely new nation, the [[Confederate States of America]]. President Buchanan and president-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy. President-elect Lincoln survived an [[assassination]] threat in Baltimore, and on [[February 23]], [[1861]] arrived in disguise in Washington. At Lincoln's inauguration on [[March 4]], [[1861]], the [[Turners]] formed Lincoln's bodyguard; and a sizable garrison of federal troops was also present, ready to protect the capital from Confederate invasion or insurrection from Confederates in the capital city. [[Image:Abraham lincoln inauguration 1861.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Photograph showing [[March 4]], [[1861]] inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of U.S. Capitol]] In his [[Lincoln's First Inaugural|First Inaugural]] Address, Lincoln declared, "I hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments", arguing further that the purpose of the [[United States Constitution]] was "to form a more perfect union" than the [[Articles of Confederation]] which were ''explicitly'' perpetual, and thus the Constitution too was perpetual. He asked rhetorically that even were the Constitution a simple contract, would it not require the agreement of all parties to rescind it? Also in his inaugural address, in a final attempt to unite the Union and prevent the looming war, Lincoln supported the proposed [[Corwin amendment|Corwin Amendment]] to the constitution, of which he had been a driving force. It would have explicitly protected slavery in those states in which it already existed, and had already passed both houses. Lincoln adamantly opposed the [[Crittenden Compromise]], however, which would have permitted slavery in the territories, renewing the boundary set by the [[Missouri Compromise]] and extending it to [[California]]. Despite support for this compromise among some Republicans, Lincoln declared that were the Crittenden Compromise accepted, it "would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and [[Tierra del Fuego]]." Because opposition to slavery expansion was the key issue uniting the Republican Party at the time, Lincoln is sometimes criticized for putting politics ahead of the national interest in refusing any compromise allowing the expansion of slavery. Supporters of Lincoln, however, point out that he did not oppose slavery because he was a Republican, but became a Republican because of his opposition to the expansion of slavery, that he opposed several other Republicans who were in favor of compromise, and that he clearly thought his course of action was in the national interest. By the time Lincoln took office the Confederacy was an established fact and not a single leader of that country ever proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. No compromise was found because no compromise was possible. Lincoln perhaps could have allowed the southern states to secede, and some Republicans recommended that. However conservative Democratic nationalists, such as [[Jeremiah S. Black]], [[Joseph Holt]], and [[Edwin M. Stanton]] had taken control of Buchanan's cabinet around January 1, 1861, and refused to accept secession. Lincoln, and nearly all Republican leaders, adopted this nationalistic position by March, 1861: the Union could not be broken. ==War begins: 1861-1862== {{main|American Civil War}} After Union troops at [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]] were fired on and forced to surrender in April, Lincoln called on governors of every state to send 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and "preserve the Union," which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. Virginia, which had repeatedly warned Lincoln it would not allow an invasion of its territory or join an attack on another state, then seceded, along with North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas. The slave states of Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware did not secede, and Lincoln urgently negotiated with state leaders there, promising not to interfere with slavery in loyal states. ==Emancipation Proclamation== [[Image:Emancipation_proclamation.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Lincoln met with his Cabinet for the first reading of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] draft on [[July 22]], [[1862]].]] {{main articles|[[Abraham Lincoln on slavery]] and [[Emancipation Proclamation]]}} Congress in July 1862 moved to free the slaves by passing the Second Confiscation Act. It provided: :That if any person shall hereafter incite, set on foot, assist, or engage in any rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States, or the laws thereof, or shall give aid or comfort thereto, or shall engage in, or give aid and comfort to, any such existing rebellion or insurrection, and be convicted thereof, such person shall be punished by imprisonment for a period not exceeding ten years, or by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars, and by the liberation of all his slaves, if any he have; or by both of said punishments, at the discretion of the court. :.... :SEC. 9. And be it further enacted, That all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the government of the United States, or who shall in any way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves captured from such persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the government of the United States; and all slaves of such person found on [or] being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves. Thus everyone who 60 days after [[July 17]], [[1862]] supported the rebellion was to be punished by having all their slaves freed. The goal was to weaken the rebellion, which was led and controlled by slave owners. This did not abolish the legal institution of slavery (the XIII Amendment did that), but it shows Lincoln had the support of (and was even somewhat pushed by) Congress in liberating the slaves owned by rebels. Lincoln implemented the new law by his "Emancipation Proclamation." Lincoln is well known for ending slavery in the United States and he personally opposed slavery as a profound moral evil not in accord with the principle of equality asserted in the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]]. Yet, Lincoln's views of the role of the federal government on the subject of slavery are more complicated. Before the Confederate states seceded, Lincoln had campaigned against the expansion of slavery into the [[Historic regions of the United States|territories]], where Congress did have authority. However, he maintained that the federal government could not constitutionally bar slavery in states where it already existed. During his presidency, Lincoln made it clear that the North was fighting the war to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Freeing the slaves was a war measure to weaken the rebellion by destroying the economic base of its leadership class. Lincoln was criticized both at home and abroad for his refusal to take a stand for the complete abolition of slavery. On [[August 22]], [[1862]], a few weeks before signing the Proclamation, and after it had already been drafted, Lincoln responded by letter to an editorial by [[Horace Greeley]] of the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' which had urged abolition: :I would save the Union. I would save it the shortest way under the Constitution. The sooner the national authority can be restored; the nearer the Union will be "the Union as it was." If there be those who would not save the Union, unless they could at the same time save slavery, I do not agree with them. If there be those who would not save the Union unless they could at the same time destroy slavery, I do not agree with them. My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union. I shall do less whenever I shall believe what I am doing hurts the cause, and I shall do more whenever I shall believe doing more will help the cause. I shall try to correct errors when shown to be errors; and I shall adopt new views so fast as they shall appear to be true views. :I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.[http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/greeley.htm] With the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] issued in two parts on [[September 22]], [[1862]] and [[January 1]], [[1863]], Lincoln made the abolition of slavery a goal of the war. Lincoln addresses the issue of his consistency (or lack thereof) between his earlier position and his later position on emancipation in an 1864 letter to [[Albert G. Hodges]][http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/hodges.htm] Lincoln is often credited with freeing enslaved [[African Americans]] with the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. However, border states that still allowed slavery but were under Union control were exempt from the emancipation because they were not covered under any war measures. The proclamation on its first day, [[January 1]], [[1863]], freed only a few escaped slaves, but as Union armies advanced south more and more slaves were liberated until hundreds of thousands were freed (exactly how many is unknown). Lincoln signed the Proclamation as a wartime measure, insisting that only the outbreak of war gave constitutional power to the President to free slaves in states where it already existed. He later said: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." The proclamation made abolishing slavery in the rebel states an official war goal and it became the impetus for the enactment of the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] which abolished slavery; Lincoln was one of the main promoters of that amendment. Although some Northern conservatives recoiled at the notion that the war was now being fought for the slaves instead of for preserving the Union, in the end the Emancipation Proclamation did much to help the Northern cause politically. Lincoln's strong [[abolitionist]] stand finally convinced the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] and other foreign countries that they could not support the [[Confederate States of America]]. This move remains one of the great seizures of private property by the federal government, restoring the ownership of the blacks to themselves, Lincoln had for some time been working on plans to set up [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery#Colonization|colonies]] in Africa and South America for the nearly 4 million newly freed slaves. He remarked upon colonization favorably in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed. ==Important domestic measures of Lincoln's first term== [[Image:Lincoln.png|thumb|right|While Lincoln is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1861 at the suggestion of 11-year-old [[Grace Bedell]].]] Lincoln believed in the Whig theory of the presidency, which left Congress to write the laws. He was anti-vescovian. He signed them, vetoing only bills that threatened his war powers. Thus he signed the [[Homestead Act]] in 1862, making available millions of acres of government-held land in the west for purchase at very low cost. The [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]], also signed in 1862, provided government grants for [[agricultural universities]] in each state. Lincoln also signed the Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864, which granted federal support to the construction of the United States' first transcontinental railroad, which was completed in 1869. The most important legislation involved money matters, including the first income tax and higher tariffs. Most important was the creation of the system of national banks by the [[National Banking Act]]s of 1863, 1864 and 1865 which allowed the creation of a strong national financial system. Lincoln sent a senior general to put down the "[[Sioux Uprising |Sioux Uprising]]" of August 1862 in [[Minnesota]]. Presented with 303 death warrants for convicted [[Santee Dakota]] who had massacred innocent farmers, Lincoln affirmed 39 of these for execution (one was later reprieved). ==1864 election and second inauguration== After Union victories at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] and [[Battle of Chattanooga|Chattanooga]] in 1863, many in the North believed that victory was soon to come after Lincoln appointed [[Ulysses S. Grant|U.S. Grant]] General-in-Chief on [[March 12]], [[1864]]. Although no president since [[Andrew Jackson]] had been elected to a second term (and none since [[Martin Van Buren|Van Buren]] had been re-nominated), Lincoln's re-election was considered a certainty. However, when the spring campaigns, east and west, all turned into bloody stalemates, Northern morale dipped and Lincoln seemed less likely to be re-nominated. [[U.S. Treasury Secretary|Treasury Secretary]] [[Salmon P. Chase]] strongly desired the Republican nomination and was working hard to win it, while [[John Fremont]] was nominated by a breakoff group of radical Republicans, potentially taking away crucial votes in the November elections. Fearing he might lose the election, Lincoln wrote out and signed the following pledge, but did not show it to his cabinet, asking them each to sign the sealed envelope. Lincoln wrote: :This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he can not possibly save it afterwards. The Democrats, hoping to make setbacks in the war a top campaign issue, waited until late summer to nominate a candidate. Their platform was heavily influenced by the [[Copperheads (politics)|Peace wing]] of the party, calling the war a "failure," but their candidate, former General [[George McClellan]], was a [[War Democrats|War Democrat]], determined to prosecute the war until the Union was restored, although willing to compromise on all other issues, including slavery. McClellan's candidacy was soon undercut as on [[September 1]], just two days after the [[1864 Democratic National Convention|convention]], [[Battle of Atlanta|Atlanta]] was abandoned by the Confederate army. Coming on the heels of [[David Farragut|David Farragut's]] capture of [[Battle of Mobile Bay|Mobile Bay]] and followed by [[Phil Sheridan|Phil Sheridan's]] crushing victory over [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early's]] army at [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]], it was now apparent that the tide had turned in favor of the Union and that Lincoln may be reelected despite the costs of the war. Still, Lincoln believed that he would win the [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral vote]] by only a slim margin, failing to give him the [[Mandate (politics)|mandate]] he'd need if he was to push his lenient [[reconstruction]] plan. To his surprise, Lincoln ended up winning all but two states, capturing 212 of 233 electoral votes. After Lincoln's election, on [[March 4]], [[1865]], he delivered his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]], which was his favorite of all his speeches. At this time, a victory over the rebels was within sight, [[slavery]] had effectively ended, and Lincoln was looking to the future. :Fondly do we hope--fervently do we pray--that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the bond-man's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether" :With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan--to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations. ==Civil War and reconstruction== ===Conducting the war effort=== The war was a source of constant frustration for the president, and it occupied nearly all of his time. Lincoln had a contentious relationship with General [[George B. McClellan]], who became general-in-chief of all the Union armies in the wake of the embarrassing Union defeat at the [[First Battle of Bull Run]] and after the retirement of [[Winfield Scott]] in late 1861. Lincoln wished to take an active part in planning the war strategy despite his inexperience in military affairs. Lincoln's strategic priorities were two-fold: first, to ensure that Washington, D.C., was well-defended; and second, to conduct an aggressive war effort in hopes of ending the war quickly and appeasing the Northern public and press, who pushed for an offensive war. McClellan, a youthful [[United States Military Academy|West Point]] graduate and railroad executive called back to military service, took a more cautious approach. McClellan took several months to plan and execute his [[Peninsula Campaign]], which involved capturing [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] by moving the [[Army of the Potomac]] by boat to the [[Virginia Peninsula|peninsula]] between the [[James River (Virginia)|James]] and [[York River (Virginia)|York Rivers]]. McClellan's delay irritated Lincoln, as did McClellan's insistence that no troops were needed to defend Washington, D.C. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops to defend the capital, a decision McClellan blamed for the ultimate failure of his Peninsula Campaign. McClellan, a lifelong [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] who was temperamentally conservative, was relieved as general-in-chief after releasing his ''[[Harrison's Landing Letter]]'', where he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort. McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint fellow Republican [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]] as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire for the Union to move towards Richmond from the north, thus guarding Washington, D.C. However, Pope was soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] during the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back into the defenses of Washington for a second time. Pope was sent to Minnesota to fight the [[Sioux]]. Panicked by Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s invasion of [[Maryland]], Lincoln restored McClellan to command of all forces around Washington in time for the [[Battle of Antietam]] in September 1862. It was the Union victory in that battle that allowed Lincoln to release his Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln relieved McClellan of command shortly after the 1862 midterm elections and appointed Republican [[Ambrose Burnside]] to head the Army of the Potomac, who promised to follow through on Lincoln's strategic vision for an aggressive offensive against Lee and Richmond. After Burnside was stunningly defeated at [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]], [[Joseph Hooker]] was given command, despite his idle talk about becoming a military strong man. Hooker was routed by Lee at [[Battle of Chancellorsville|Chancellorsville]] in May 1863 and also relieved of command. After the Union victory at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], [[George G. Meade | Meade's]] failure to pursue Lee, and months of inactivity for the Army of the Potomac, Lincoln decided to bring in a western general: General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. He had a solid string of victories in the Western Theater, including [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] and [[Battle of Chattanooga III|Chattanooga]]. Earlier, reacting to criticism of Grant, Lincoln was quoted as saying, "I cannot spare this man. He fights." Grant waged his bloody [[Overland Campaign]] in 1864, using a strategy of a [[war of attrition]], characterized by high Union losses at battles such as the [[Battle of the Wilderness|Wilderness]] and [[Battle of Cold Harbor|Cold Harbor]], but by proportionately higher losses in the Confederate army. Grant's aggressive campaign would eventually bottle up Lee in the [[Siege of Petersburg]] and result in the Union taking Richmond and bringing the war to a close in the spring of 1865. Lincoln authorized Grant to use a [[scorched earth]] approach to destroy the South's morale and economic ability to continue the war. This allowed Generals [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] and [[Philip Sheridan]] to destroy farms and towns in the [[Shenandoah Valley]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and [[South Carolina]]. The damage in [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] through Georgia totaled in excess of $100 million. Lincoln had a star-crossed record as a military leader, possessing a keen understanding of strategic points (such as the [[Mississippi River]] and the fortress city of Vicksburg) and the importance of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing cities. However, he had little success in his efforts to motivate his generals to adopt his strategies. Eventually, he found in Grant a man who shared his vision of the war and was able to bring that vision to reality with his relentless pursuit of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters of war. Lincoln, perhaps reflecting his lack of military experience, developed a keen curiosity with military campaigning during the war. He spent hours at the [[United States War Department|War Department]] [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] office, reading dispatches from his generals through many a night. He frequently visited battle sites and seemed fascinated by watching scenes of war. During [[Jubal A. Early]]'s [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raid into Washington, D.C.]], in 1864, Lincoln had to be told to duck his head to avoid being shot while observing the scenes of battle. ===Homefront=== Lincoln was more successful in giving the war meaning to Northern civilians through his oratorical skills. Despite his meager education and &#8220;backwoods&#8221; upbringing, Lincoln possessed an extraordinary command of the English language, as evidenced by the [[Gettysburg Address]], a speech dedicating a cemetery of Union soldiers from the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] that he delivered on November 19, 1863. While the featured speaker, orator [[Edward Everett]], spoke for two hours, Lincoln's few choice words resonated across the nation and across history, defying Lincoln's own prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here." Lincoln's [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]] is also greatly admired and often quoted. In these speeches, Lincoln articulated better than any of his contemporaries the rationale behind the Union effort. During the Civil War, Lincoln exercised powers no previous president had wielded; he proclaimed a [[blockade]], suspended the writ of [[habeas corpus]], spent money without [[Congress of the United States|congressional]] authorization, and imprisoned thousands of accused Confederate sympathizers without trial. There is a fragment of uncorraborated evidence that Lincoln made contingency plans to arrest [[Chief Justice]] [[Roger Brooke Taney]], though the allegation remains unresolved and controversial (see the [[Taney Arrest Warrant]] controversy). The long war and the issue of emancipation appeared to be severely hampering his prospects and pessimists warned that defeat appeared likely. Lincoln ran under the Union party banner, composed of War Democrats and Republicans. General Grant was facing severe criticism for his conduct of the bloody [[Overland Campaign]] that summer and the seemingly endless [[Siege of Petersburg]]. However, the Union capture of the key railroad center of [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] by Sherman's forces in September changed the situation dramatically and Lincoln was reelected. ===Reconstruction=== The [[reconstruction]] of the Union weighed heavy on the President's mind throughout the war effort. He was determined to take a course that would not permanently alienate the former Confederate states, and throughout the war Lincoln urged speedy elections under generous terms in areas behind Union lines. This irritated congressional Republicans, who urged a more stringent Reconstruction policy. One of Lincoln's few vetoes during his term was of the [[Wade-Davis Bil]]l, an effort by congressional Republicans to impose harsher Reconstruction terms on the Confederate areas. Republicans in Congress retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from [[Louisiana]], [[Arkansas]], and [[Tennessee]] during the war under Lincoln's generous terms. "Let 'em up easy," he told his assembled military leaders [[Ulysses S. Grant|Gen. Ulysses S. Grant]] (a future president), [[William Tecumseh Sherman|Gen. William T. Sherman]] and [[David Dixon Porter|Adm. David Dixon Porter]] in an 1865 meeting on the steamer ''River Queen''. When [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]], the Confederate capital, was at long last captured, Lincoln went there to make a public gesture of sitting at [[Jefferson Davis]]'s own desk, symbolically saying to the nation that the President of the United States held authority over the entire land. He was greeted at the city as a conquering hero by freed slaves, whose sentiments were epitomized by one admirer's quote, "I know I am free for I have seen the face of Father Abraham and have felt him." On [[April 9]], [[1865]], Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]] surrendered at [[Appomattox Court House]] in [[Virginia]]. This left only [[Joseph Johnston]]'s forces in the East to deal with. Weeks later Johnston would defy Jefferson Davis and surrender his forces to Sherman. Of course, Lincoln would not survive to see the surrender of all Confederate forces; just five days after Lee surrendered, Lincoln was [[assassination|assassinated]]. He was the first President to be assassinated, and the third to die in office. ==Assassination== [[Image:Lincolnassassination.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: [[Henry Rathbone]], [[Clara Harris]], Mary Todd Lincoln, Lincoln, and Booth.]] Lincoln had met frequently with Lt. Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]] as the war drew to a close. The two men planned matters of reconstruction, and it was evident to all that they held each other in high regard. During their last meeting, on [[April 14]], [[1865]] ([[Good Friday]]), Lincoln invited Grant to a social engagement that evening. Grant declined (Grant's wife, [[Julia Dent Grant]], is said to have strongly disliked [[Mary Todd Lincoln]]). The President's eldest son, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], also turned down the invitation. [[John Wilkes Booth]], a well-known actor and Southern sympathizer from [[Maryland]], heard that the president and Mrs. Lincoln, along with the Grants, would be attending [[Ford's Theatre]]. Having failed in a plot to kidnap Lincoln earlier, Booth informed his co-conspirators of his intention to kill Lincoln. Others were assigned to assassinate [[Vice-President]] [[Andrew Johnson]] and [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]]. Without his [[bodyguard]] [[Ward Hill Lamon]], to whom he related his famous [[dream]] of his own assassination, the Lincolns left to attend the play at Ford's Theater. The play, ''[[Our American Cousin]]'', was a musical comedy by the British writer [[Tom Taylor]]. As Lincoln sat in his state box in the balcony, Booth crept up behind the President's box and waited for the funniest line of the play, hoping the laughter would cover the gunshot noise. On stage, actor Harry Hawk said the last words Lincoln would ever hear "Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal—you sockdologizing old man-trap...". When the laughter came Booth jumped into the box the president was in and aimed a single-shot, round-slug .44 [[caliber]] [[Deringer]] at his head, firing at point-blank range. The bullet entered behind Lincoln's left ear and lodged behind his right eyeball. Major [[Henry Rathbone]], who was present in the Presidential Box, momentarily grappled with Booth but was severely stabbed and slashed by the assassin. It was believed that Booth then shouted "''[[Sic semper tyrannis]]!''" (Latin: "Thus always to tyrants," the state motto of Virginia; some accounts say he added "The South is avenged!") and jumped from the balcony to the stage below, breaking his leg. Despite his injury, Booth managed to limp to his horse and make his escape. As Booth fled from the theater, a young physician, Dr. [[Charles Leale]], made his way through the audience to Lincoln's box. Leale quickly assessed the wound as mortal. The President was taken across the street from the theater to the [[Petersen House]], where he lay in a coma for nine hours before he expired. Several physicians attended Lincoln, including U.S. Army Surgeon General Joseph K. Barnes of the Army Medical Museum. Using a probe, Barnes located some fragments of Lincoln's skull and the ball lodged 6 inches inside his brain. Lincoln, who never regained consciousness, was officially pronounced dead at 7:22 A.M. the next morning, April 15, 1865. Upon his death, Secretary of War [[Edwin Stanton]] lamented "now he belongs to the ages." After Lincoln's body was returned to the [[White House]], his body was prepared for his "lying in state" in the [[East Room]]. The Army Medical Museum, now named the National Museum of Health and Medicine, has retained in its collection since the time of Lincoln's death, several artifacts relating to the assassination. Currently on display in the museum are the bullet that was fired from the Deringer pistol, ending Lincoln's life, the probe used by Barnes, pieces of his skull and hair and the surgeon's cuff, stained with Lincoln's blood. The museum can be found at [http://www.nmhm.washingtondc.museum/exhibits/nationswounds/lincoln.html www.hmhm.washingtondc.museum] [[Image:LincolnTrain.jpeg|right|thumbnail|250px|Lincoln's funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son William, 1,654 miles to Illinois.]] Lincoln's body was carried by train in a grand funeral procession through several states on its way back to Illinois. The nation mourned a man whom many viewed as the savior of the United States. He was buried in [[Oak Ridge Cemetery]] in Springfield, where a 177 foot (54 m) tall granite tomb surmounted with several bronze statues of Lincoln was constructed by 1874. To prevent repeated attempts to steal Lincoln's body and hold it for ransom, Robert Todd Lincoln had Lincoln exhumed and reinterred in concrete several feet thick on [[September 26]], [[1901]]. {{further|[[Abraham Lincoln's burial and exhumation]]}} ==Presidential appointments== ===Administration and Cabinet=== Lincoln was known for appointing his enemies and political rivals to high positions in his Cabinet. Not only did he use great political skill in reducing potential political opposition, but he felt he was appointing the best qualified person for the good of the country. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Office !! Name !! Term |- | [[President of the United States|President]] || '''Abraham Lincoln''' || 1861–1865 |- | [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] || '''[[Hannibal Hamlin]]''' || 1861–1865 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[Andrew Johnson]]''' || 1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] || '''[[William H. Seward]]''' || 1861–1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] || '''[[Salmon P. Chase]]''' || 1861–1864 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[William P. Fessenden]]''' || 1864–1865 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[Hugh McCulloch]]''' || 1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] || '''[[Simon Cameron]]''' || 1861–1862 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[Edwin M. Stanton]]''' || 1862–1865 |- | [[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]] || '''[[Edward Bates]]''' || 1861–1864 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[James Speed]]'''||align="left"|1864–1865 |- | [[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]] || '''[[Horatio King]]''' || 1861 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[Montgomery Blair]]''' || 1861–1864 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[William Dennison (Ohio governor)|William Dennison]]''' || 1864–1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]] || '''[[Gideon Welles]]''' || 1861–1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]] || '''[[Caleb B. Smith]]''' || 1861–1863 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[John P. Usher]]''' || 1863–1865 |} <br clear="all"> ===Supreme Court=== Lincoln appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]: *[[Noah Haynes Swayne]] - 1862 *[[Samuel Freeman Miller]] - 1862 *[[David Davis (senator)|David Davis]] - 1862 *[[Stephen Johnson Field]] - 1863 *[[Salmon P. Chase]] - [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] - 1864 ==Major presidential acts== ===Involvement as President-elect=== *[[Morrill tariff|Morrill Tariff of 1861]] *[[Corwin amendment|Corwin Amendment]] ===Enacted as President=== *Signed [[Revenue Act of 1861]] *Signed [[Homestead Act]] *Signed [[Morrill Act|Morill Land-Grant College Act]] *Signed [[Internal Revenue Act of 1862]] *Signed Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 *Established [[Department of Agriculture]] (1862) *Signed [[National Banking Act|National Banking Act of 1863]] *Signed [[Internal Revenue Act of 1864]] ==States admitted to the Union== *[[West Virginia]] – 1863 *[[Nevada]] – 1864 ==Legacy and memorials== Lincoln's death made the President a [[martyr]] to many. Today he is perhaps America's second most famous and beloved President after [[George Washington]]. Repeated polls of historians have ranked Lincoln as among the [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|greatest presidents in U.S. history]]. Among contemporary admirers, Lincoln is usually seen as a figure who personifies [[Image:Lincoln_statue.jpg|thumbnail|200px|[[Daniel Chester French]]'s seated ''Lincoln'' faces the [[National Mall]] to the east.]] [[Image:MtRushmore Abe close.JPG|thumbnail|100px|Lincoln's bust on Mt. Rushmore.]]classical values of honesty, integrity, as well as respect for individual and minority rights, and human freedom in general. Many American organizations of all purposes and agendas continue to cite his name and image, with interests ranging from the [[gay rights]] group [[Log Cabin Republicans]] to the [[insurance]] corporation [[Lincoln Financial Group|Lincoln Financial]]. The [[Lincoln automobile]] is also named after him. Over the years Lincoln has been memorialized in many city names, notably the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital of Nebraska]]; with the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] (''pictured, right''); on the U.S. [[U.S. five dollar bill|$5 bill]] and the [[Penny (U.S. coin)|1 cent coin]] (Illinois is the primary opponent to the removal of the penny from circulation); and as part of the [[Mount Rushmore National Memorial]]. [[Lincoln's Tomb]], [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]] in [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]], [[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem, Illinois]] (a reconstruction of Lincoln's early adult hometown), [[Ford's Theater]] and Petersen House are all preserved as museums. The [[List of U.S. state nicknames|state nickname]] for [[Illinois]] is ''Land of Lincoln''. [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] in 18 [[U.S. state]]s ([[Lincoln County, Arkansas|Arkansas]], [[Lincoln County, Colorado|Colorado]], [[Lincoln County, Idaho|Idaho]], [[Lincoln County, Kansas|Kansas]], [[Lincoln County, Minnesota|Minnesota]], [[Lincoln County, Mississippi|Mississippi]], [[Lincoln County, Montana|Montana]], [[Lincoln County, Nebraska|Nebraska]], [[Lincoln County, Nevada|Nevada]], [[Lincoln County, New Mexico|New Mexico]], [[Lincoln County, Oklahoma|Oklahoma]], [[Lincoln County, Oregon|Oregon]], [[Lincoln County, South Dakota|South Dakota]], [[Lincoln County, Tennessee|Tennessee]], [[Lincoln County, West Virginia|West Virginia]], [[Lincoln County, Washington|Washington]], [[Lincoln County, Wisconsin|Wisconsin]], and [[Lincoln County, Wyoming|Wyoming]]) are named after Lincoln. On [[February 12]], [[1892]], Abraham Lincoln's birthday was declared to be a federal [[holiday]] in the United States, although in 1971 it was combined with Washington's birthday in the form of [[President's Day]]. February 12 is still observed as a separate legal holiday in many states, including Illinois. Lincoln's birthplace and family home are national historic memorials: [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site]] in [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]] and [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]] in [[Springfield, Illinois]]. The [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] is also in Springfield. The [[Abraham Lincoln National Cemetery]] is located in [[Elwood, Illinois]]. Statues of Lincoln can be found in other countries. In [[Ciudad Juárez]], [[Chihuahua]], [[Mexico]], is a 13-foot high bronze statue, a gift from the United States, dedicated in 1966 by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. The U.S. received a statue of [[Benito Juárez]] in exchange, which is in Washington, D.C. Juárez and Lincoln exchanged friendly letters, and Mexico remembers Lincoln's opposition to the [[Mexican-American War]]. There is also a statue in [[Tijuana]], Mexico, showing Lincoln standing and destroying the chains of slavery. There are at least three statues of Lincoln in the [[United Kingdom]]—one in [[London]] by [[Augustus St. Gaudens]], one in [[Manchester]] by [[George Grey Barnard]] and another in [[Edinburgh]] by [[George Bissell (industrialist)|George Bissell]]. The [[ballistic missile]] [[submarine]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (SSBN-602)]] and the [[aircraft carrier]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (CVN-72)]] were named in his honor. Also, the [[Liberty ship]], [[SS Nancy Hanks|SS ''Nancy Hanks'']] was named to honor his mother. In a recent public vote entitled "[[The Greatest American]]," Lincoln placed second (placing first was [[Ronald Reagan]]). ==Lincoln in popular culture== {{see|Lincoln in popular culture}} ==Trivia== * Lincoln stood 6'3 3/4" (192.4 cm) tall and thus was the tallest president in U.S. history, just edging out [[Lyndon Johnson]] at 6'3 1/2" (191.8 cm). * He was born on the same day as [[Charles Darwin]]. * The last surviving self-described witness to Lincoln's assassination was [[Samuel J. Seymour]] (~1860–[[April 14]], [[1956]]), who appeared two months before his death at age 96 on the [[CBS]]-TV [[quiz show]] ''[[I've Got a Secret]]''. He said that as a five-year-old he had thought at first that he, himself, had been shot because his nurse, trying to fix a torn place in his blouse, stuck him with a pin at the moment of the gun's discharge. * According to legend, Lincoln was referred to as "two-faced" by his opponent in the 1858 [[Senate]] election, [[Stephen A. Douglas|Stephen Douglas]]. Upon hearing about this Lincoln jokingly replied, "If I had another face to wear, do you really think I would be wearing this one?" * According to legend, Lincoln also said, as a young man, on his appearance one day when looking in the mirror: "It's a fact, Abe! You are the ugliest man in the world. If ever I see a man uglier than you, I'm going to shoot him on the spot!" It would no doubt, he thought, be an act of mercy. * Based on written descriptions of Lincoln, including the observations that he was much taller than most men of his day and had long limbs, an abnormally-shaped chest, and loose or lax joints, it has been conjectured since the 1960s that Lincoln may have suffered from [[Marfan syndrome]]. *Lincoln was known to have a case of [[depression]]. During his time in New Salem, Illinois, his fiancee died, and that triggered his depression. His close friends watched over him to make sure he did not commit suicide. He also suffered from nightmares during his term in the [[White House]]. His depression got so severe, he had to hold a cabinet meeting from his bed. *He once mentioned one of his haunting nightmares to his friend. Lincoln mentioned that he was standing in a mourning crowd surrounding a train, and when he asked a grieving woman what had happened, she replied, "The President has been shot, and he has died." *Lincoln is the only American president to hold a [[patent]]. The patent is for a device that lifts [[boat|boats]] over [[shoal|shoals]]. ==See also== *[[Origins of the American Civil War]] *[[American System (economics)|American System]], Lincoln's economic beliefs. *[[Lincoln-Kennedy coincidences]] *[[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations]] * Movies: ''[[D.W. Griffith's 'Abraham Lincoln']]'', ''[[The Dramatic Life of Abraham Lincoln]]'' *[[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] ==References== ===Biographies=== *''Lincoln'' by [[David Herbert Donald]] (1999) ISBN 068482535X, very well reviewed by scholars; Donald has won two Pulitzer prizes for biography *''Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America: A Biography'' by William E. Gienapp ISBN 0195150996 (2002), short *''Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln'' by [[Doris Kearns Goodwin]] ISBN 0684824906 (2005). reviewers report it is very well written *''Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President'' by Allen C. Guelzo ISBN 0802838723 (1999) *''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890) by [[John Hay]] & [[John George Nicolay]]; online at [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Volume 2] 10 volumes in all; written by Lincoln's top aides *''The Real Abraham Lincoln'' by Reinhard H Luthin (1960), well regarded by reviewers *''The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia'' by [[Mark E. Neely]] (1984), detailed articles on many men and movements associated with AL * ''The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America'' by Mark E. Neely (1993), Pulitzer prize winning author * ''With Malice Toward None: The Life of Abraham Lincoln'' by Stephen B. Oates (1994). *''Lincoln the President'' by James G. Randall (4 vol., 1945–55; reprint 2000.) by prize winning scholar **''Mr. Lincoln'' excerpts ed. by Richard N. Current (1957) *''Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years'' (2 vol 1926); ''The War Years'' (4 vol 1939) biography by [[Carl Sandburg]]. Pulitzer Prize winner by famous poet *''Abraham Lincoln: A Biography'' by Benjamin P. Thomas; (1952) ===Specialty topics=== *Baker, Jean H. ''Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography'' (1987) *Belz, Herman. ''Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era'' (1998) *Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream'' (1994). Lincoln's economic theory and policies *Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln the War President'' (1994). *Boritt, Gabor S., ed. ''The Historian's Lincoln.'' Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, historiography *Bruce, Robert V. ''Lincoln and the Tools of War'' (1956) on weapons development during the war *Donald, David Herbert. ''Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era'' (1960). *Foner, Eric. ''Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War'' (1970) intellectual history of different prewar faction's in AL's party *Harris, William C. ''With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union'' (1997). AL's plans for Reconstruction *Hendrick, Burton J. ''Lincoln's War Cabinet'' (1946) *Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition: And the Men Who Made It'' (1948) ch 5: "Abraham Lincoln and the Self-MAde Myth". *Holzer, Harold. ''Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President'' (2004). *McPherson, James M. ''Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution'' (1992) *McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988). Pulitzer Prize winner surveys all aspects of the war *Morgenthau, Hans J., and David Hein. ''Essays on Lincoln's Faith and Politics''. Lanham, MD: University Press of America for the White Burkett Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia, 1983. *Neely, Mark E. ''The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties'' (1992). Pulitzer Prize winner. * Philip S. Paludan ''The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln'' (1994), reviewers call it the most thorough treatment of AL's administration *''Lincoln in American Memory'' by Merrill D. Peterson, (1994). how Lincoln was remembered after 1865 *Randall, James G. ''Lincoln the Liberal Statesman'' (1947). * Richardson, Heather Cox. ''The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War'' (1997) * Shenk, Joshua Wolf. ''Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness'' (2005). Named one of the best books of 2005 by The Washington Post, The New York Times, and The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. *''Lincoln'' by [[Gore Vidal]] ISBN 0375708766, a novel. *''Lincoln and His Generals'' by T. Harry Williams (1967). *''Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America'' by Garry Wills ISBN 0671867423 *''Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln'' by Douglas L. Wilson (1999). ===Lincoln in art and popular culture=== * Bullard. F. Lauriston, ''Lincoln in Marble and Bronze'', Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey 1952 * Mead, Fanklin B., ''Heroic Statues in Bronze of Abraham Lincoln: Introducing The Hoosier Youth by [[Paul Manship]]'', The Lincoln National Life Foundation, Fort Wayne, Indiana 1932 * Moffatt, Frederick C., ''Errant Bronzes: [[George Grey Barnard]]'s Statues of Abraham Lincoln'', University of Deleware Press, Newark, DE 1998 * Murry, Freeman Henry Morris, ''Emancipation anf the Freed in American Sculpture'', Books For Libraries Press, the Black Heritage Library Collection, Freeport, NY 1972 - originally published in 1916 * Petz, Weldon, ''Michigan's Monumental Tributes to Abraham Lincoln'', Historical Society of Michigan 1987 * Redway, Maurine Whorton and Dorothy Kendall Bracken, ''Marks of Lincoln on Our Land''. Hastings House, Publishers, New York 1957 * Savage, Kirk, ''Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race War and Monument in Nineteenth Century America'', Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey 1997 * Tice, George, ''Lincoln'', Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey 1984 *''The Real Lincoln'' by [[Thomas DiLorenzo]] ISBN 0761526463, a stinging neo-Confederate attack on Lincoln as evil 2002 ===Primary Sources=== * Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln'' 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1953-55) * Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings'' (1946) * Lincoln, Abraham. ''Lincoln: Speeches and Writings'' 2 vol Library of America edition, (1989). * Lincoln, Abraham. ''The Life and Writings of Abraham Lincoln'' (Modern Library Classics ed by Philip Van Doren Stern) (2000). ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Abraham Lincoln}} *{{CongBio|L000313}} *[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/al16.html White House Biography] *[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress] (1850-1865) *[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Lincolnatpeace2.jpg The Controversial photograph of Lincoln in death] *[http://www.abrahamlincoln.org/ The Lincoln Institute] *[http://www.rootdig.com/abraham_lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln in United States Census Records] *[http://home.att.net/~rjnorton/Lincoln77.html Especially for Students: An Overview of Abraham Lincoln's Life] *[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/alhome.html Mr. Lincoln's Virtual Library] *[http://www.quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Lincoln__Abraham Speeches and Quotes by Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/prespoetry/al.html Poetry written by Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.mybigadventure.com/index.php?action=Stats&stat=Memorials&date=20041027.3&page=5 Lincoln Memorial Tour] - My Big Adventure (33 Images) *[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln2.html Abraham Lincoln Research Site] *[http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org Abraham Lincoln Online] *[http://www.hti.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln] *[http://deptorg.knox.edu/lincolnstudies/ Lincoln Studies Center at Knox College] *[http://lenbernstein.com/Pages/EgoJustice.html Discussion of John Drinkwater's play ''Abraham Lincoln''] *[http://www.sonofthesouth.net/prod01.htm Original 1860's Harper's Weekly Images and News on Abraham Lincoln] *[http://dev.stg.brown.edu/projects/lincoln/ The Lincoln Log: A Daily Chronology of the Life of Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.nps.gov/linc/ Lincoln Memorial] Washington, DC *[http://www.thelincolnmuseum.org The Lincoln Museum] Fort Wayne, Indiana *[http://www.gilderlehrman.org/historians/fellowship2.html The Lincoln Prize] A national book award sponsored by The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History and the Civil War Institute at Gettysburg College *[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln's Assassination] *[http://www.lincolnherald.com/1970articleSubstitute.html John Summerfield Staples, President Lincoln's "Substitute"] *[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=6469.WKU.&OS=PN/6469&RS=PN/6469 US6469] Patent -- ''Manner of Buoying Vessels'' -- A. Lincoln -- 1849 *[http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig2/lincoln-arch.html King Lincoln] (an archive of articles on Lincoln) *[http://www.nps.gov/abli/ National Park Service Abraham Lincoln birthplace] (includes good early history) *Hoard Historical Museum [http://www.hoardmuseum.org/] in [[Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin]] with Lincoln Library *[http://www.williamapercy.com/pub-LincolnIntimate.htm On the Question of Lincoln's Sexuality] *[http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g16.htm Medical and Health history of Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.worldofbiography.com/9052%2DAbraham%20Lincoln/ Biography] (World of Biography) ===Project Gutenberg eTexts=== *List of {{gutenberg author| id=Abraham+Lincoln | name=Abraham Lincoln}} *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12462 A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents: Volume 6, part 1: Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2517 Lincoln's Yarns and Stories] *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Volume 2] of ''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890) by [[John Hay]] (1835 to 1905) & [[John George Nicolay]] (1832 to 1901) *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1815 ''The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1907) by Nicolay, Helen (1866 to 1954) *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6811 ''The Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1901) by Henry Ketcham *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12800 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12801 Volume 2] of ''Abraham Lincoln'' (1899) by John T. Morse *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14004 ''The Every-day Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1913) by Francis Fisher Browne *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11728 ''Abraham Lincoln: The People's Leader in the Struggle for National Existence''] (1909) by George Haven Putnam, Litt. D. *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1713 ''Lincoln's Personal Life''] (1922) by Nathaniel W. Stephenson {{start box}} {{succession box | title={{ushr|Illinois|7|Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Illinois's 7th District}} | before=[[John Henry (Illinois politician)|John Henry]] | after=[[Thomas Langrell Harris]] | years=1847 – 1849}} {{succession box | before=[[John Frémont]] | title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party presidential nominee]] | after=[[Ulysses Grant]] | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864]] (won)}} {{succession box | before=[[James Buchanan]] | title=[[President of the United States]] | after=[[Andrew Johnson]] | years=[[March 4]], [[1861]] – [[April 15]], [[1865]]}} {{end box}} {{USpresidents}} {{USRepPresNominees}} {{featured article}} [[Category:1809 births|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:1865 deaths|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Abraham Lincoln| ]] [[Category:American Civil War people|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:American lawyers|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Assassinated politicians|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Autodidacts|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Cat lovers|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Firearm deaths|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Humanists|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Humanitarians|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Members of the Illinois House of Representatives|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Murder victims|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:People from Kentucky|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Presidents of the United States|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:United States Army officers|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:United States Senate candidates|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Welsh-Americans|Lincoln, Abraham]] {{Link FA|de}} [[ar:أبراهام لينكولن]] [[bg:Ейбрахам Линкълн]] [[bs:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ca:Abraham Lincoln]] [[cs:Abraham Lincoln]] [[cy:Abraham Lincoln]] [[da:Abraham Lincoln]] [[de:Abraham Lincoln]] [[eo:Abraham LINCOLN]] [[es:Abraham Lincoln]] [[et:Abraham Lincoln]] [[eu:Abraham Lincoln]] [[fa:آبراهام لینکلن]] [[fi:Abraham Lincoln]] [[fr:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ga:Abraham Lincoln]] [[gl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[he:אברהם לינקולן]] [[hr:Abraham Lincoln]] [[id:Abraham Lincoln]] [[it:Abramo Lincoln]] [[ja:エイブラハム・リンカーン]] [[ko:에이브러햄 링컨]] [[lt:Abraomas Linkolnas]] [[mk:Абрахам Линколн]] [[nl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[nn:Abraham Lincoln]] [[no:Abraham Lincoln]] [[pl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[pt:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ru:Линкольн, Авраам]] [[scn:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sh:Abraham Lincoln]] [[simple:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sk:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sq:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sr:Абрахам Линколн]] [[sv:Abraham Lincoln]] [[th:อับราฮัม ลินคอล์น]] [[tr:Abraham Lincoln]] [[vi:Abraham Lincoln]] [[zh:亚伯拉罕·林肯]] Aristotle 308 42134476 2006-03-04T01:21:48Z Dpbsmith 21036 I don't think Ayn Rand has quite the same stature as Alexander the Great and Thomas Aquinas {{Infobox_Philosopher | <!-- Scroll down to edit this page --> <!-- Philosopher Category --> region = Western philosophers | era = [[Ancient philosophy]] | color = #B0C4DE | <!-- Image and Caption --> image_name = Aristoteles Louvre.jpg | image_caption = Aristotle, [[marble]] copy of [[bronze]] by [[Lysippos]] | <!-- Information --> name = Αριστοτέλης, Aristotelēs | birth = [[384 BC]] | death = [[March 7]] [[322 BC]] | school_tradition = [[Materialism]] and [[Empiricism]] | main_interests = [[Politics]], | influences = [[Plato]], | influenced = [[Alexander the Great]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] | notable_ideas = [[Golden mean (philosophy)|The Golden mean]], Rule of the Superior, Reason > Passion, | }} '''Aristotle''' ({{lang-grc|{{{polytonic|Αριστοτέλης}}}}} Aristotelēs [[384 BC]] &ndash; [[March 7]], [[322 BC]]) was an [[ancient Greek]] [[philosopher]], who studied with [[Plato]] and taught [[Alexander the Great]]. He wrote books on many subjects, including [[physics]], [[poetry]], [[zoology]], [[logic]], [[rhetoric]], [[government]], and [[biology]]. Aristotle, along with Plato and [[Socrates]], is generally considered one of the most influential of [[Ancient philosophy|ancient Greek philosophers]]. They transformed [[Presocratic]] [[Greek philosophy]] into the foundations of [[Western philosophy]] as we know it. The writings of Plato and Aristotle founded two of the most important schools of [[Ancient philosophy]]. Aristotle valued knowledge gained from the senses and in modern terms would be classed among the modern [[empiricist]]s (see [[materialism]] and [[empiricism]]). He also achieved a "grounding" of dialectic in the Topics by allowing interlocutors to begin from commonly held beliefs (''[[Endoxa]]''); his goal being non-contradiction rather than [[Truth]]. He set the stage for what would eventually develop into the empiricist version of [[scientific method]] centuries later. Although he wrote dialogues early in his career, no more than fragments of these have survived. The works of Aristotle that still exist today are in [[treatise]] form and were, for the most part, unpublished texts. These were probably lecture notes or texts used by his students, and were almost certainly revised repeatedly over the course of years. As a result, these works tend to be eclectic, dense and difficult to read. Among the most important ones are ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics]] (or [[Ontology]])'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[De Anima]] (On the Soul)'' and ''[[Poetics]]''. These works, although connected in many fundamental ways, are very different in both style and substance. Aristotle is known for being one of the few figures in history who studied almost every subject possible at the time. In science, Aristotle studied [[anatomy]], [[astronomy]], [[economics]], [[embryology]], [[geography]], [[geology]], [[meteorology]], [[physics]], and [[zoology]]. In philosophy, Aristotle wrote on [[aesthetics]], [[ethics]], [[government]], [[metaphysics]], [[politics]], [[psychology]], [[rhetoric]] and [[theology]]. He also dealt with [[education]], foreign customs, [[literature]] and [[poetry]]. His combined works practically constitute an [[encyclopedia]] of Greek knowledge. == Biography == ===Early life and studies at the Academy=== [[Image:Bust of Aristotle.jpg|thumb|A [[bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Aristotle is a nearly ubiquitous ornament in places of high culture in the [[Western world|West]].]] Aristotle was born at [[Stageira]], a [[apoikia|colony]] of [[Andros]] on the [[Macedon]]ian peninsula of [[Chalcidice]] in [[384 BC]]. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to King [[Amyntas III of Macedon]]. It is believed that Aristotle's ancestors held this position under various kings of the Macedons. As such, Aristotle's early education would probably have consisted of instruction in [[medicine]] and [[biology]] from his father. About his mother, Phaestis, little is known. It is known that she died early in Aristotle's life. When Nicomachus also died, in Aristotle's tenth year, he was left an [[orphan]] and placed under the guardianship of his uncle, [[Proxenus of Atarneus]]. He taught Aristotle [[Greek language|Greek]], [[rhetoric]], and [[poetry]] (O'Connor ''et al.'', [[2004]]). Aristotle was probably influenced by his father's medical knowledge; when he went to [[Athens]] at the age of 18, he was likely already trained in the investigation of natural phenomena. From the age of 18 to 37 Aristotle remained in Athens as a pupil of [[Plato]] and distinguished himself at the ''[[Academy]]''. The relations between Plato and Aristotle have formed the subject of various legends, many of which depict Aristotle unfavourably. No doubt there were divergences of opinion between Plato, who took his stand on sublime, idealistic principles, and Aristotle, who even at that time showed a preference for the investigation of the facts and laws of the physical world. It is also probable that Plato suggested that Aristotle needed restraining rather than encouragement, but not that there was an open breach of friendship. In fact, Aristotle's conduct after the death of Plato, his continued association with [[Xenocrates]] and other [[Platonists]], and his allusions in his writings to Plato's doctrines prove that while there were conflicts of opinion between Plato and Aristotle, there was no lack of cordial appreciation or mutual forbearance. Besides this, the legends that reflect Aristotle unfavourably are traceable to the [[Epicureans]], who were known as slanderers. If such legends were circulated widely by [[patristic]] writers such as [[Justin Martyr]] and [[Gregory Nazianzen]], the reason lies in the exaggerated esteem Aristotle was held in by the early [[Christianity|Christian]] [[heretic]]s, not in any well-grounded historical tradition. ===Aristotle as philosopher and tutor=== After the death of Plato ([[347 BC]]), Aristotle was considered as the next head of the Academy, a position that was eventually awarded to Plato's nephew. Aristotle then went with Xenocrates to the court of [[Hermias]], ruler of [[Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]], and married his niece and adopted daughter, Pythia. In [[344 BC]], Hermias was murdered in a rebellion, <!--''(or a Persian attack?)''--> and Aristotle went with his family to [[Mytilene]]. It is also reported that he stopped on [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]] and briefly conducted biological research. Then, one or two years later, he was summoned to Pella, the Macedonian capital, by King [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor of [[Alexander the Great]], who was then 13. [[Plutarch]] wrote that Aristotle not only imparted to Alexander a knowledge of ethics and politics, but also of the most profound secrets of philosophy. We have much proof that Alexander profited by contact with the philosopher, and that Aristotle made prudent and beneficial use of his influence over the young prince (although [[Bertrand Russell]] disputes this). Due to this influence, Alexander provided Aristotle with ample means for the acquisition of books and the pursuit of his scientific investigation. It is possible that Aristotle also participated in the education of Alexander's boyhood friends, which may have included for example [[Hephaestion]] and [[Harpalus]]. Aristotle maintained a long correspondence with Hephaestion, eventually collected into a book, unfortunately now lost. According to sources such as Plutarch and [[Diogenes]], Philip had Aristotle's hometown of Stageira burned during the [[340s BC]], and Aristotle successfully requested that Alexander rebuild it. During his tutorship of Alexander, Aristotle was reportedly considered a second time for leadership of the Academy; his companion Xenocrates was selected instead. ===Founder and master of the Lyceum=== In about [[335 BC]], Alexander departed for his Asiatic campaign, and Aristotle, who had served as an informal adviser (more or less) since Alexander ascended the Macedonian throne, returned to Athens and opened his own school of philosophy. He may, as [[Aulus Gellius]] says, have conducted a school of [[rhetoric]] during his former residence in Athens; but now, following Plato's example, he gave regular instruction in philosophy in a [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] dedicated to [[Apollo Lyceios]], from which his school has come to be known as the [[Lyceum]]. (It was also called the [[Peripatetic]] School because Aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking up and down -- ''peripateo'' -- the shaded walks -- ''peripatoi'' -- around the gymnasium). During the thirteen years ([[335 BC]]&ndash;[[322 BC]]) which he spent as teacher of the Lyceum, Aristotle composed most of his writings. Imitating Plato, he wrote ''[[Dialogue]]s'' in which his doctrines were expounded in somewhat popular language. He also composed the several treatises (which will be mentioned below) on physics, metaphysics, and so forth, in which the exposition is more [[didactic]] and the language more technical than in the ''Dialogues''. These writings show to what good use he put the resources Alexander had provided for him. They show particularly how he succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he pursued, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] claimed that Alexander placed under Aristotle's orders all the hunters, fishermen, and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests, lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges, and Aristotle's works on zoology make this statement more believable. Aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors, and [[Strabo]] asserted that he was the first to accumulate a great library. During the last years of Aristotle's life the relations between him and Alexander became very strained, owing to the disgrace and punishment of [[Callisthenes]], whom Aristotle had recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless, Aristotle continued to be regarded at Athens as a friend of Alexander and a representative of Macedonia. Consequently, when Alexander's death became known in Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the [[Lamian war]], Aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of [[impiety]], which had been brought against [[Anaxagoras]] and [[Socrates]], was now, with even less reason, brought against Aristotle. He left the city, saying (according to many ancient authorities) that he would not give the Athenians a chance to sin a third time against philosophy. He took up residence at his country house at [[Chalcis]], in [[Euboea]], and there he died the following year, [[322 BC]]. His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. The story that his death was due to [[hemlock]] poisoning, as well as the legend that he threw himself into the sea "because he could not explain the [[tide]]s," is without historical foundation. Very little is known about Aristotle's personal appearance except from hostile sources. The statues and busts of Aristotle, possibly from the first years of the Peripatetic School, represent him as sharp and keen of countenance, and somewhat below the average height. His character&mdash;as revealed by his writings, his will (which is undoubtedly genuine), fragments of his letters and the allusions of his unprejudiced contemporaries&mdash;was that of a high-minded, kind-hearted man, devoted to his family and his friends, kind to his slaves, fair to his enemies and rivals, grateful towards his benefactors. When [[Platonism]] ceased to dominate the world of [[Christianity|Christian]] speculation, and the works of Aristotle began to be studied without fear and prejudice, the personality of Aristotle appeared to the Christian writers of the [[13th century]], as it had to the unprejudiced pagan writers of his own day, as calm, majestic, untroubled by passion, and undimmed by any great moral defects, "the master of those who know". Aristotle's legacy also had a profound influence on Islamic thought and philosophy during the [[Middle Ages|middle ages]]. The likes of [[Avicenna]], [[Farabi]], and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi<small>[http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/KINDI.html 1]</small> were a few of the major proponents of the Aristotelian school of thought during the ''[[Golden Age of Islam]]''. == Methodology == {{details|Aristotle's theory of universals}} Aristotle defines philosophy in terms of [[essence]], saying that philosophy is "the science of the universal essence of that which is [[actual]]". Plato had defined it as the "science of the [[idea]]", meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of [[phenomena]]. Both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the [[universal]]; Aristotle, however, finds the universal in [[particular]] things, and called it the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their [[prototype]] or [[exemplar]]. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] and [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]], while Plato's is essentially deductive. In Aristotle's terminology, the term ''natural philosophy'' corresponds to the phenomena of the natural world, which include: [[motion]], [[light]], and the [[laws of physics]]. Many centuries later these subjects would become the basis of modern science, as studied through the [[scientific method]]. In modern times the term ''philosophy'' has come to be more narrowly understood as metaphysics, distinct from empirical study of the natural world via the physical sciences. In contrast, in Aristotle's time and use [[philosophy]] was taken to encompass all facets of intellectual inquiry. In the larger sense of the word, he makes philosophy coextensive with [[reasoning]], which he also called "science". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that which is covered by the scientific method. "All science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical." By practical science he understands ethics and politics; by poetical, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; while by theoretical philosophy he means physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The last, philosophy in the stricter sense, he defines as "the knowledge of [[immaterial]] being," and calls it "first philosophy", "the theologic science" or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." If logic, or, as Aristotle calls it, [[Analytic]], be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, we have as divisions of Aristotelian philosophy (1) [[Logic]]; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including [[Metaphysics]], [[Physics]], [[Mathematics]], (3) Practical Philosophy; and (4) Poetical Philosophy. ==Aristotle's epistemology== ===Logic=== {{main|Aristotelian logic}} {{see details|Non-Aristotelian logic}} ==== History ==== Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak about'" (Boche&#324;ski, [[1951]]). However, Plato reports that [[syntax]] was thought of before him, by [[Prodikos of Keos]], who was concerned by the right use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from [[dialectics]]; the earlier philosophers used concepts like ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' as a rule when discussing, but never understood its logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic. Although he had the idea of constructing a system for [[deduction]], he was never able to construct one. Instead, he relied on his [[dialectic]], which was a confusion between different sciences and methods (Boche&#324;ski, [[1951]]). Plato thought that deduction would simply follow from [[premise]]s, so he focused on having good premises so that the [[conclusion]] would follow. Later on, Plato realised that a method for obtaining the conclusion would be beneficial. Plato never obtained such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book ''Sophist'', where he introduced his division method (Rose, [[1968]]). ====Analytics and the ''Organon''==== {{main|Organon}} What we call today Aristotelian logic, Aristotle himself would have labelled analytics. The term logic he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books at about the time of [[Christ]]: #''Categories'' #''On Interpretation'' #''Prior Analytics'' #''Posterior Analytics'' #''Topics'' #''On Sophistical Refutations'' The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the ''Organon'', namely the fourth book of ''Metaphysics.'' (Boche&#324;ski, 1951). ====Modal logic==== Aristotle is also the creator of [[syllogism]]s with modalities ([[modal logic]]). The word modal refers to the word 'modes', explaining the fact that modal logic deals with the modes of [[truth]]. Aristotle introduced the qualification of 'necessary' and 'possible' premises. He constructed a logic which helped in the evaluation of truth but which was very difficult to interpret. (Rose, 1968). ===Science=== [[Image:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg|thumb|left|Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez]] Aristotelian discussions about science had only been qualitative, not quantitative. By the modern definition of the term, Aristotelian philosophy was not science, as this [[worldview]] did not attempt to probe how the world actually worked through [[experiment]]. For example, in his book ''[[History of Animals|The history of animals]]'' he claimed that human males have more teeth than females. Had he only made some observations, he would have discovered that this claim is false. Rather, based on what one's senses told one, Aristotelian philosophy then depended upon the assumption that man's mind could elucidate all the laws of the universe, based on simple observation (without experimentation) through [[reason]] alone. One of the reasons for this was that Aristotle held that physics was about changing objects with a reality of their own, whereas mathematics was about unchanging objects without a reality of their own. In this philosophy, he could not imagine that there was a relationship between them. In contrast, today's "science" assumes that thinking alone often leads people astray, and therefore one must compare one's ideas to the actual world through experimentation; only then can one see if one's ideas are based in reality. This position is known as [[empiricism]] or the [[scientific method]]. Although Aristotle initiated an important step in the history of scientific method by founding logic as a formal science, he also left behind a trail of bankrupt cosmology that we may discern in selections of the metaphysics. His cosmology would gain much acceptance up until the 1500’s, where Copernicus and Galileo began to figure out that Europe is not the center of the universe. From the 3rd century to the 1500’s, the dominant view held that the earth was the center of the universe: at this late date it is uncontroversial that the earth is not even the center of our own solar system. In spite of Aristotle’s bogus account of the planets and sun, he is a vital character in the history of metaphysics, both in terms of the etymology of the word, as well as a figure within metaphysics as a discipline. Dubbed “the stuff next to the physics.” by Andronicus of Rhodes, “metaphysics” became connected to the idea of “beyond the physical” by Simplicius, a commentator on Aristotle. Andronicus had published Aristotle’s works sometime around 43-20 BC; so initially the etymology of metaphysics was simply that which is “next to the physics.” ==Aristotle's metaphysics== ===[[Causality]]=== [[Aristole]] is the first who saw that "All causes of things are beginnings; that we have scientific knowledge when we know the cause; that to know a thing's existence is to know the reason for its existence."{{fact}} Setting the guidelines for all the subsequent causal theories, by specifying the number, nature, principles, elements, varieties, order, and modes of causation, Aristotle's account of the causes of things is the most comprehensive theory up to now. According to Aristotle's theory, all the causes fall into several senses, the total number of which amounts to the ways the question 'why' may be answered; namely, by reference to the matter or the ''substratum''; the ''essence'', the pattern, the form, or the structure; to the primary moving ''change'' or the agent and its action; and to the goal, the plan, the ''end'', or the good. Consequently, the major kinds of causes come under the following divisions: The [[Material Cause]] is that from which a thing comes into existence as from its parts, constituents, substratum or materials. This reduces the explanation of causes to the parts (factors, elements, constituents, ingredients) forming the whole (system, structure, compound, complex, composite, or combination) (the part-whole causation). The [[Formal Cause]] tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis, or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (macrostructure) is the cause of its parts (the whole-part causation). The [[Efficient Cause]] is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. The [[Final Cause]] is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve, or it is that from which and that to which the change is. This also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition, need, motivation, or motives, rational, irrational, ethical, all that gives purpose to behavior. Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. [Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or action or influence of cause and effect.] Also, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects, its presence and absent may result in different outcomes. Besides, Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentiallly, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect All further investigations of causality will be consisting in imposing the favorite hierarchies on the order causes, like as final > efficient> material > formal (Aquinas), or in restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or to the efficient causality (deterministic or chance) or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena (the natural sciences describing how things happen instead of explaining the whys and wherefores). ===Chance and Spontaneity=== Spontaneity and chance are causes of effects. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance. However, chance can only apply to human beings, it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, chance must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance" (Physics, 2.6). ===The Five Elements=== *'''Fire''' which is hot and dry. *'''Earth''' which is cold and dry. *'''Air''' which is hot and wet. *'''Water''' which is cold and wet. *'''Aether''' which is the divine substance that makes up the heavens These four elements interchange (i.e. Fire &#x2194; Air &#x2194; Water &#x2194; Earth etc.), while aether is on its own. The Sun keeps this cycle going. God keeps the Sun going (and thus the Sun is eternal). == Aristotle's ethics == {{main|Aristotelian ethics}} Although Aristotle wrote several works on [[ethics]], the major one was the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', which is considered one of Aristotle's greatest works; it discusses [[virtue]]s. The ten books which comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the [[Lyceum]] and were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, [[Nicomachus]]. Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not ''certain'' knowledge, like [[metaphysics]] and [[epistemology]], but ''general knowledge''. Also, as it is a practical discipline rather than a [[theory|theoretical]] one, he thought that in order to become "good," one could not simply study what virtue ''is''; one must actually do virtuous deeds. In order to do this, Aristotle had first to establish what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good.' The ultimate goal he called the ''Highest Good''. Aristotle contested that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honor. He finally finds happiness "by ascertaining the specific function of man." But what is this function that will bring happiness? To determine this, Aristotle analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts: the Nutritive Soul (plants, animals and humans), the Perceptive Soul (animals and humans) and the Rational Soul (humans only). Thus, a human's function is to do what makes it human, to be good at what sets it apart from everything else: the ability to reason or ''Nous''. A person that does this is the happiest because they are fulfilling their purpose or nature as found in the rational soul. Depending on how well they did this, Aristotle said people belonged to one of four categories: the Virtuous, the Continent, the Incontinent and the Vicious. Aristotle believes that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between [[excess]] and [[deficiency]]. This does not mean Aristotle believed in moral relativism, however. He set certain emotions (e.g., hate, envy, jealousy, spite, etc.) and certain actions (e.g., adultery, theft, murder, etc.) as always wrong, regardless of the situation or the circumstances. ===Nicomachean ethics=== {{main|Nicomachean Ethics}} In ''Nicomachean Ethics'', Aristotle focuses on the importance of continually [[behavior|behaving]] virtuously and developing [[virtue]] rather than committing specific good actions. This can be contrasted with [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] ethics, in which the primary focus is on individual action. ''Nicomachean Ethics'' emphasizes the importance of context to ethical behaviour &mdash; what might be right in one situation might be wrong in another. Aristotle believed that [[happiness]] is the end of life and that as long as a person is striving for [[Goodness and value theory|goodness]], good deeds will result from that struggle, making the person virtuous and therefore happy. == Aristotle's critics == [[Image:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|left|[[Plato]] (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of ''[[Raphael Rooms|The School of Athens]]'', a fresco by [[Raphael]]. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, whilst Plato points up to the heavens showing his belief in the ultimate truth.]] Aristotle has been criticised on several grounds. * His analysis of procreation is frequently criticised on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive, lumpen female element; it is on these grounds that some feminist critics refer to Aristotle as a misogynist. *At times, the objections that Aristotle raises against the arguments of his own teacher, [[Plato]], appear to rely on faulty interpretations of those arguments. *Although Aristotle advised, against Plato, that knowledge of the world could only be obtained through experience, he frequently failed to take his own advice. Aristotle conducted projects of careful [[empirical]] investigation, but often drifted into [[Abstraction|abstract]] logical reasoning, with the result that his work was littered with conclusions that were not supported by empirical evidence: for example, his assertion that objects of different [[mass]] fall at different speeds under [[gravity]], which was later refuted by [[John Philoponus]] (credit is often given to [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], even though Philopinus lived centuries earlier). *In the [[Middle Ages]], roughly from the [[12th century]] to the [[15th century]], the philosophy of Aristotle became firmly established [[dogma]]. Although Aristotle himself was far from dogmatic in his approach to philosophical inquiry, two aspects of his philosophy might have assisted its transformation into dogma. His works were wide-ranging and [[systematic]] so that they could give the impression that no significant matter had been left unsettled. He was also much less inclined to employ the [[skeptic]]al methods of his predecessors, Socrates and Plato. *Some academics have suggested that Aristotle was unaware of much of the current science of his own time. Aristotle was called not a great philosopher, but "The Philosopher" by [[Scholastic]] thinkers. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. == The loss of his works == Though we know that Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises ([[Cicero]] described his literary style as "a river of gold"), the originals have been lost in time. All that we have now are the literary notes for his pupils, which are often difficult to read (the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' is a good example). It is now believed that we have about one fifth of his original works. Aristotle underestimated the importance of his written work for humanity. He thus never published his books, except from his dialogues. The story of the original manuscripts of his treatises is described by [[Strabo]] in his Geography and [[Plutarch]] in his "[[Parallel Lives]], Sulla": The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to [[Theophrastus]], from Theophrastus to [[Neleus of Scepsis]], from Neleus to his heirs. Their descendants sold them to [[Apellicon of Teos]]. When [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] occupied Athens in [[86 BC]], he carried off the library of Appellicon to [[Rome]], where they were first published in [[60 BC]] from the grammarian [[Tyrranion of Amisus]] and then by philosopher [[Andronicus of Rhodes]]. == Bibliography == ''Note: [[Bekker numbers]] are often used to uniquely identify passages of Aristotle. They are identified below where available.'' === Major works === The extant works of Aristotle are broken down according to the five categories in the ''[[Corpus Aristotelicum]]''. Not all of these works are considered genuine, but differ with respect to their connection to Aristotle, his associates and his views. Some, such as the ''Athenaion Politeia'' or the fragments of other ''politeia'' are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school" and compiled under his direction or supervision. Other works, such ''On Colours'' may have been products of Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., [[Theophrastus]] and [[Straton]]. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the ''De Plantis,'' possibly by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]]. A final category, omitted here, includes medieval [[palmistries]], [[astrological]] and [[magical]] texts whose connection to Aristotle is purely fanciful and self-promotional. Those that are seriously disputed are marked with an asterisk. ==== Logical writings ==== * [[Organon]] (collected works on logic): ** (1a) [[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]] (or ''Categoriae'') ** (16a) [[On Interpretation]] (or ''De Interpretatione'') ** (24a) [[Prior Analytics]] (or ''Analytica Priora'') ** (71a) [[Posterior Analytics]] (or ''Analytica Posteriora'') ** (100b) [[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]] (or ''Topica'') ** (164a) [[On Sophistical Refutations]] (or ''De Sophisticis Elenchis'') ==== Physical and scientific writings ==== * (184a) [[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]] (or ''Physica'') * (268a) [[On the Heavens]] (or ''De Caelo'') * (314a) [[On Generation and Corruption]] (or ''De Generatione et Corruptione'') * (338a) [[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]] (or ''Meteorologica'') * (391a) [[On the Cosmos]] (or ''De Mundo'', or ''On the Universe'') * * (402a) [[On the Soul]] (or ''De Anima'') * (436a) [[Little Physical Treatises]] (or ''Parva Naturalia''): ** [[On Sense and the Sensible]] (or ''De Sensu et Sensibilibus'') ** [[On Memory and Reminiscence]] (or ''De Memoria et Reminiscentia'') ** [[On Sleep and Sleeplessness]] (or ''De Somno et Vigilia'') ** [[On Dreams]] (or ''De Insomniis'') * ** [[On Prophesying by Dreams]] (or ''De Divinatione per Somnum'') ** [[On Longevity and Shortness of Life]] (or ''De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae'') ** [[On Youth and Old Age]] (On Life and Death) (or ''De Juventute et Senectute'', ''De Vita et Morte'') ** [[On Breathing]] (or ''De Respiratione'') * (481a) [[On Breath]] (or ''De Spiritu'') * * (486a) [[History of Animals]] (or ''Historia Animalium'', or ''On the History of Animals'', or ''Description of Animals'') * (639a) [[On the Parts of Animals]] (or ''De Partibus Animalium'') * (698a) [[On the Gait of Animals]] (or ''De Motu Animalium'', or ''On the Movement of Animals'') * (704a) [[On the Progression of Animals]] (or ''De Incessu Animalium'') * (715a) [[On the Generation of Animals]] (or ''De Generatione Animalium'') * (791a) [[On Colours]] (or ''De Coloribus'') * * (800a) ''[[De audibilibus]]'' * (805a) [[Physiognomics]] (or ''Physiognomonica'') * * [[On Plants]] (or ''De Plantis'') * * (830a) [[On Marvellous Things Heard]] (or ''Mirabilibus Auscultationibus'', or ''On Things Heard'') * * (847a) [[Mechanical Problems]] (or ''Mechanica'') * * (859a) [[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]] (or ''Problemata'') * * (968a) [[On Indivisible Lines]] (or ''De Lineis Insecabilibus'') * * (973a) [[Situations and Names of Winds]] (or ''Ventorum Situs'') * * (974a) [[On Melissus, Xenophanes and Gorgias]] (or ''MXG'') * The section On Xenophanes starts at 977a13, the section On Gorgias starts at 979a11. ==== Metaphysical writings ==== * (980a) [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]] (or ''Metaphysica'') ==== Ethical writings ==== * (1094a) [[Nicomachean Ethics]] (or ''Ethica Nicomachea'', or ''The Ethics'') * (1181a) [[Great Ethics]] (or ''Magna Moralia'') * * (1214a) [[Eudemian Ethics]] (or ''Ethica Eudemia'') * (1249a) [[Virtues and Vices]] (or ''De Virtutibus et Vitiis Libellus'', ''Libellus de virtutibus'') * * (1252a) [[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]] (or ''Politica'') * (1343a) [[Economics (Aristotle)|Economics]] (or ''Oeconomica'') ==== Aesthetic writings ==== * (1354a) [[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]] (or ''Ars Rhetorica'', or ''The Art of Rhetoric'' or ''Treatise on Rhetoric'') * [[Rhetoric to Alexander]] (or ''Rhetorica ad Alexandrum'') * * (1447a) [[Poetics]] (or ''Ars Poetica'') ==== A work outside the ''Corpus Aristotelicum'' ==== * The [[Constitution of the Athenians]] (or ''Athenaion Politeia'', or ''The Athenian Constitution'') * === Specific editions=== * [[Princeton University]] Press: ''The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation'' (2 Volume Set; Bollingen Series, Vol. LXXI, No. 2), edited by [[Jonathan Barnes]] ISBN 0-691-09950-2 (The most complete recent translation of Aristotle's extant works) * [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] Press: ''Clarendon Aristotle Series''. [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/series/ClarendonAristotleSeries/?view=usa Scholarly edition] * [[Harvard University]] Press: ''[[Loeb Classical Library#Aristotle|Loeb Classical Library]]'' (hardbound; publishes in Greek, with English translations on facing pages) * [[Oxford Classical Texts]] (hardbound; Greek only) ==Named for Aristotle== *[[Aristoteles (crater)|Aristoteles crater]] on the [[Moon]]. *The [[Aristotle University of Thessaloniki]] *Aristotle's Cockney legacy - The name of Aristotle, like that of [[J. Arthur Rank]], became a common expression in [[Cockney rhyming slang]]. ==See also== *[[Aristotelian view of God]] *[[Aristotelian theory of gravity]] *[[Philia]] *[[Phronesis]] *[[Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)|Aristotle's theory of potentialiy and actuality]] ==References== Needless to say, the secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection. * {{cite book | last = Adler | first = Mortimer J. | authorlink = Mortimer Adler | title=[[Aristotle for Everybody]] | publisher=Macmillan | location = New York | year=1978 }} A popular exposition for the general reader. * {{cite book | last = Bocheński | first = I. M. | authorlink = I. M. Bocheński | title=Ancient Formal Logic | publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company | location = Amsterdam | year=1951 }} * {{cite book | last = Guthrie | first = W. K. C. | title=A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6 | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | year=1981 }} A detailed and scholarly work, but very readable. * {{cite book | last = Melchert | first = Norman | authorlink = Norman Melchert | title=The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy | publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0195175107 }} * {{cite book | last = Rose | first = Lynn E. | authorlink = Lynn E. Rose | title=Aristotle's Syllogistic | publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher | location = Springfield | year=1968 }} * {{cite book | last = Ross | first = Sir David | authorlink = Sir David Ross | title=Aristotle | publisher=Routledge | edition = 6<sup>th</sup> ed. | location = London | year=1995 }} An classic overview by one of Aristotle's most important English translators, in print since 1923. * {{cite book | last = Taylor | first = Henry Osborn | authorlink = Henry Osborn Taylor | url = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html | title = Greek Biology and Medicine | year = 1922 | chapter = Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology | chapterurl = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html }} * {{cite book | last = Turner | first = William | authorlink = William Turner | others = Nihil Obstat Remy Lafort, S.T.D.; Censor Imprimatur + John Cardinal Farley, Abp. of New York | title = The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume I: "Aristotle" | publisher = Robert Appleton Company | edition = 1907 | year = 1907 | location=New York }} * {{cite book | last = Veatch | first = Henry B. | authorlink = Henry Babcock Veatch | title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation | publisher=Indiana U. Press | location = Bloomington | year=1974 }} For the general reader. ==External links== {{Wikisource author}} {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Aristotelēs}} *{{gutenberg author | id=Aristotle | name=Aristotle}} *[http://Aristotle.thefreelibrary.com/ A brief biography and e-texts presented one chapter at a time] *[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aristotl.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle.], 2004. *[http://www.non-contradiction.com/ An extensive collection of Aristotle's philosophy and works, including lesser known texts] *[http://www.virtuescience.com/nicomachean-ethics.html Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle.] *[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0505172 Aristotle and Indian logic] *O'Connor, J. John & Robertson, Edmund F., [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Aristotle.html Aristotle], 2004. *{{PerseusAuthor|Aristotle}} *{{planetmath|id=5840|title=Aristotle}} *[http://www.greektexts.com/library/Aristotle/index.html Large collection of Aristotle's texts, presented page by page] *[http://www.greek-literature-online.com/aristotle/ Read Aristotle's works online] *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01713a.htm Source of most of the Biography and Methodology sections, as well as more overview] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Aristotle}} *[http://www.shvoong.com/books/history/119724-constitution-athens/ a summary of "The Constitution of Athens"] {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:322 BC deaths|Aristotle]] [[Category:384 BC births|Aristotle]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]] [[Category:Aristotelian philosophers]] [[Category:Aristotle]] [[Category:Empiricists]] [[Category:Greek logicians]] [[Category:History of philosophy]] [[Category:History of science]] [[Category:Meteorologists]] [[Category:Rhetoric]] [[Category:Rhetoricians]] {{Link FA|fi}} [[ar:أرسطو]] [[bg:Аристотел]] [[ba:Аристотель]] [[bs:Aristotel]] [[ca:Aristòtil]] [[cs:Aristotelés]] [[da:Aristoteles]] [[de:Aristoteles]] [[et:Aristoteles]] [[el:Αριστοτέλης]] [[es:Aristóteles de Estagira]] [[eo:Aristotelo]] [[eu:Aristoteles]] [[fa:ارسطو]] [[fr:Aristote]] [[ga:Arastotail]] [[gl:Aristóteles]] [[ko:아리스토텔레스]] [[hr:Aristotel]] [[io:Aristoteles]] [[id:Aristoteles]] [[is:Aristóteles]] [[it:Aristotele]] [[he:אריסטו]] [[jv:Aristoteles]] [[la:Aristoteles]] [[lv:Aristotelis]] [[lt:Aristotelis]] [[hu:Arisztotelész]] [[mk:Аристотел]] [[ms:Aristotle]] [[nl:Aristoteles]] [[nds:Aristoteles]] [[ja:アリストテレス]] [[no:Aristoteles]] [[nn:Aristoteles]] [[pl:Arystoteles]] [[pt:Aristóteles]] [[ro:Aristotel]] [[ru:Аристотель]] [[sq:Aristoteli]] [[simple:Aristotle]] [[sk:Aristoteles]] [[sl:Aristotel]] [[sr:Аристотел]] [[fi:Aristoteles]] [[sv:Aristoteles]] [[tl:Aristoteles]] [[ta:அரிஸ்டாட்டில்]] [[th:อริสโตเติล]] [[vi:Aristotle]] [[tr:Aristoteles]] [[uk:Арістотель]] [[zh:亚里士多德]] An American in Paris 309 37835840 2006-02-02T12:39:22Z Japanese Searobin 153340 +ja: : '' ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American In Paris]]'' is also a 1951 film musical starring [[Gene Kelly]].'' '''''An American in Paris''''' is a [[European-influenced classical music|symphonic]] composition by [[United States|American]] composer [[George Gershwin]] which debuted in [[1928]]. Inspired by Gershwin's time in [[Paris]], it is in the form of an extended [[tone poem]] evoking the sights and energy of the [[France|French]] capital in the [[1920s]]. In addition to the standard instruments of the [[symphony orchestra]], the score features period automobile horns; Gershwin brought back some Parisian taxi-cab horns for the New York premiere of the composition. * "An American In Paris" is second only to [[Rhapsody In Blue]] as a favorite of Gershwin's classical compositions. * The score also features instruments rarely seen in the concert hall: [[celesta]] and [[saxophone]]s. [[Category:Compositions by George Gershwin]] [[Category:Symphonic poems|American in Paris, An]] [[ja:パリのアメリカ人]] [[pl:Amerykanin w Pary&#380;u]] [[sv:An American in Paris (symfonisk dikt)]] Acresses 310 15899047 2002-09-01T17:22:59Z Bryan Derksen 66 bypassing double redirect #REDIRECT [[Actor]] Academy Awards/Best Picture 311 15899048 2002-07-12T20:14:52Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECt #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] Academy Awards/Best Actor 312 15899049 2002-05-30T07:56:01Z Ap 122 redirecting to [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] Academy Awards/Best Actress 313 15899050 2002-07-13T09:18:33Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT to [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actor 314 15899051 2002-07-13T10:44:18Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]] Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actress 315 15899052 2002-07-13T10:50:57Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]] Academy Awards/Art Direction 316 15899053 2002-07-13T11:13:39Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Art Direction]] Academy Awards/Directing 317 15899054 2002-07-14T09:07:06Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 * #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Directing]] Academy Awards/Foreign Language Film 319 15899055 2002-07-13T01:06:05Z Eclecticology 372 * #redirect [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]] Academy Awards/Cinematography 320 15899056 2002-07-13T11:16:52Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]] Academy Awards/Documentary Feature 321 15899057 2002-07-16T20:06:11Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]] Academy Awards/Music Original Song 322 15899058 2002-07-13T11:00:26Z Eclecticology 372 de sub-paging #redirect [[Academy Award for Best Song]] Academy Awards/Short Film Live Action 323 15899059 2002-07-13T11:14:18Z Eclecticology 372 de-subpage #redirect [[Academy Award for Live Action Short Film]] Academy Awards 324 42155468 2006-03-04T04:37:49Z Wikipedical 729854 /* See also */ The '''Academy Awards''', popularly known as the '''Oscars''', are the most prominent [[film]] awards in the [[United States]] and arguably the world. The Awards are granted by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]], a professional honorary organization which, [[as of 2003]], had a voting membership of 5,816. Actors (with a membership of 1,311) make up the largest voting bloc. The votes have been tabulated and certified by auditing firm [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] since close to the awards' inception. [http://www.pwc.com/extweb/newcolth.nsf/docid/540E0FBE1B2997EE85256E55005BE8FB] The [[78th Academy Awards|next Oscars]] will take place on Sunday, [[March 5th]], [[2006]]. ==Oscar statuette== The official name of the Oscar [[statuette]] is the "Academy Award of Merit." Made of [[gold]]-plated [[britannium]] on a black marble base, it is 13.5 inches (34 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lbs (3.85 kg) and depicts a [[knight]] holding a [[crusade|crusader]]'s [[sword]] standing on a [[reel]] of film. The root of the name "Oscar" is contested. Some believe it comes from Academy librarian [[Margaret Herrick]], who saw it on a table and said, "it looks just like my uncle Oscar!" Others claim that [[Bette Davis]] named it after her first husband. However it became, the nickname stuck and is used almost as commonly as ''Academy Award'', even by the Academy itself. In fact, the Academy's domain name is ''oscars.org'' and the official website for the Academy Awards is at ''oscar.com''. ==Awards night== The major awards are given out at a ceremony, most commonly in March following the relevant calendar year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent [[fashion]] designers of the day. The ceremony and extravagant afterparties, including the Academy's Governors Ball, are televised around the world. The ceremony has consecutively aired on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] since 1976. ==Nominations== Today, according to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film has to open in the previous calendar year (from [[midnight]] [[January 1]] to midnight [[December 31]]) in [[Los Angeles County, California]], to qualify. [http://www.oscars.org/78academyawards/rules/index.html] Rule 2 states that a film must be "feature-length" (defined as 40 minutes) to qualify for an award (except for Short Subject awards, of course). It must also exist either on a [[35 mm film|35mm]] or [[70 mm film|70mm]] film print OR on a 24fps or 48fps [[progressive scan]] [[digital film]] print with a native resolution no lower than [[SXGA|1280x1024]]. The members of the various branches nominate those in their respective fields (actors are nominated by the actors' branch, etc.) while all members may submit nominees for Best Picture. The winners are then determined by a second round of voting in which all members are now allowed to vote in all categories. ==Membership== Academy membership may be obtained by one of two ways: a competitive nomination (however, the nominee must be invited to join) or a member may submit a name, seconded by at least two other members, then voted upon by the Board of Governors. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although past press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. If a person not yet a member is nominated in more than one category in a single year, he/she must choose which branch to join when he/she accepts membership. ==Awards== [[Image:BobHopegettingOsca.jpg|thumb|Although he never won an Oscar for any of his movie performances, the comedian [[Bob Hope]] received five honorary Oscars for contributions to cinema and humanitarian work.]] ===Academy Award of Merit=== ====Current awards==== *[[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Leading Actor]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Leading Actress]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature|Best Animated Feature]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[2001]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Art Direction|Best Art Direction]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present (also called Interior or Set Decoration) *[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1948]] to present *[[Academy Award for Directing|Best Director]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Documentary Feature|Best Documentary Feature]] *[[Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject|Best Documentary Short Subject]] *[[Academy Award for Film Editing|Best Film Editing]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1935]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1947]] to present *[[Academy Award for Makeup|Best Makeup]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1981]] to present *[[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Best Original Score]]; [[1934]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Song]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1934]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Musical]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1934]] to present *[[Academy Award for Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1931]] to present *[[Academy Award for Live Action Short Film|Best Live Action Short Film]] *[[Academy Award for Sound|Best Sound Mixing]]; [[1930]] to present *[[Academy Award for Sound Effects Editing|Best Sound Editing]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1963]] to present *[[Academy Award for Visual Effects|Best Visual Effects]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1939]] to present *[[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Best Adapted Screenplay]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|Best Original Screenplay]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1940]] to present ====Retired awards==== *[[Academy Award for Best Assistant Director|Best Assistant Director]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1933]] to [[1937]] *[[Academy Award for Best Dance Direction|Best Dance Direction]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1935]] to [[1937]] *[[Academy Award for Engineering Effects|Best Engineering Effects]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] only *Best Score -- Adaptation or Treatment *[[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Color|Best Short Film - Color]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] and [[1937]] *[[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels|Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] to [[1956]] *[[Academy Award for Short Film - Novelty|Best Short Film - Novelty]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1932]] to [[1935]] *[[Academy Award for Best Story|Best Original Story]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to [[1956]] *[[Academy Award for Best Title Writing|Best Title Writing]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] only *[[Academy Award for Unique and Artistic Production|Best Unique and Artistic Quality of Production]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] only In the first year of the awards, the Best Director category was split into separate Drama and Comedy categories. At times, the Best Original Score category has been split into separate Drama and Comedy/Musical categories. Today, the Best Original Score category is one category. From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Cinematography, Art Direction, and Costume Design awards were split into separate categories for black and white and color films. ===Special awards=== These awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. ====Current awards==== *[[Academy Honorary Award]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Special Achievement Award]] * [[Academy Award, Scientific or Technical]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1931]] to present at three levels *[[The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1938]] to present *[[The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]] *[[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]] ====Retired awards ==== *[[Academy Juvenile Award]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1934]] to [[1960]] ==Academy Award statistics== *[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 10 or more nominations]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 8 or more awards]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving awards for Best Picture, Directing, Actor, Actress and Writing]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 3 or more acting nominations]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Actors receiving 5 or more nominations]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Actors receiving 2 or more awards]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Directors receiving 3 or more nominations]] ==See also== *[[List of Academy Awards ceremonies]] *[[List of movies that have won eight or more Academy Awards]] *[[List of Academy Award winning movies]] *[[78th Academy Awards]] ([[2006]]) ==References== Gail, K. & Piazza, J. (2002) ''The Academy Awards the Complete History of Oscar.'' Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc. ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.oscars.org/ Oscars.org] * [http://www.oscars.org/awardsdatabase/index.html The Academy Awards Database] * [http://www.oscar.com Oscar.com] * [http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Academy_Awards_USA/ The Academy Awards] at [[The Internet Movie Database]] [[Category:Academy Awards| ]] [[Category:Film awards]] [[ar:جائزة الأوسكار]] [[af:Oscar]] [[bg:Оскар]] [[bs:Oskar]] [[ca:Premi Òscar]] [[cs:Oscar]] [[da:Oscar-uddeling]] [[de:Oscar]] [[et:Oscar]] [[es:Premios Oscar]] [[eo:Oskar-premio]] [[fa:اسکار]] [[fr:Oscar du cinéma]] [[kn:ಆಸ್ಕರ್ ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿ]] [[ko:아카데미상]] [[hr:Oscar]] [[id:Academy Award]] [[ilo:Pammadayaw nga Oscar]] [[it:Premio Oscar]] [[he:פרס האוסקר]] [[hu:Oscar-díj]] [[zh-min-nan:Oscar Chióng]] [[nl:Academy Award]] [[ja:アカデミー賞]] [[nb:Oscar]] [[pl:Nagroda Akademii Filmowej]] [[pt:Óscar]] [[ro:Premiul Oscar]] [[fi:Oscar-palkinto]] [[sq:Academy Award]] [[simple:Academy Award]] [[sv:Oscar (filmpris)]] [[vi:Giải Oscar]] [[zh:奥斯卡金像奖]] Action Film 325 15899061 2002-08-04T00:46:46Z Maveric149 62 #REDIRECT [[Action movie]] Actors 326 28000771 2005-11-11T06:10:02Z RoyBoy 94806 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.56.253.183|202.56.253.183]] to last version by Maveric149 #REDIRECT [[Actor]] Actors/Male 328 15899064 2004-10-03T13:53:06Z Timwi 13051 fix double-redirect #REDIRECT [[List of male movie actors (A-K)]] Actresses 330 15899066 2002-06-12T19:11:03Z Maveric149 62 opps #REDIRECT [[actor]] Animalia (book) 332 41366701 2006-02-26T22:06:27Z Cherry blossom tree 92624 remove, er, just words, really. i suppose. {{dablink|For the kingdom of life, see [[Animal]].}} [[Image:Animalia.jpg|thumb|120px|Animalia Cover.]]'''Animalia''' is an illustrated [[Children's literature|children's book]] by [[Graeme Base]]. It was published in [[1986]]. Animalia is an alphabet book and contains twenty six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for [[alligator]], B is for [[butterfly]], etc). The illustrations contain dozens of small objects that the curious reader can try to identify. Base also published a [[coloring book]] version [http://www.alibris.com/search/search.cfm?qwork=7937230&wauth=Base%2C%20Graeme&matches=16&qsort=r&cm_re=works*listing*title] for children to do their own coloring. ==External links== * [http://www.tellapallet.com/animalia.htm A web site that contains a fairly comprehensive list of items hidden in Animalia's illustrations] * [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0810918684 Animalia on Amazon.com] * [https://www.graemebase.com/Home.cfm Graeme Base's Official website] [[Category:Children's books]] [[sk:Živočíchy]] Asymmetric Algorithms 333 23401668 2005-09-17T16:42:05Z Hurricane111 99272 Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]]. #REDIRECT [[Public-key cryptography]] International Atomic Time 334 36597984 2006-01-25T04:14:11Z ShakataGaNai 60232 utc disambig '''Temps Atomique International''' ('''TAI''') or '''International Atomic Time''' is a very accurate and stable [[time scale]]. It is a weighted average of the time kept by about 300 [[atomic clock]]s (including a large number of [[caesium]] atomic clocks) in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. It has been available since [[1955]], and became the international standard on which [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] is based on [[January 1]], [[1972]], as decided by the 14th [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CGPM). The [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] is in charge of the realization of TAI. The highest precision realization of TAI times can only be determined retrospectively, as the timescale is defined by periodic comparisons among its participating atomic clocks. However, these corrections are usually only needed for applications that require nanosecond-scale accuracy. Most time service users use realtime estimates of TAI provided by atomic clocks that have been previously referenced to the composite timescale. [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] is a commonly-used realtime source of time traceable back to TAI. [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC) is the basis for legal time throughout much of the world, and always differs from TAI by an integral number of seconds. From [[1 January]] [[2006]], UTC was behind TAI by 33 seconds. The difference is due to an initial ten second offset on [[1 January]] [[1972]] when UTC was established and [[leap second]]s, which have been periodically inserted into UTC since the first on [[30 June]] [[1972]] due to slight irregularities in Earth's rate of rotation. While TAI is a continuous and stable timescale, UTC has intentional discontinuities to keep it from drifting more than 0.9 second from [[UT1]], a timescale defined by the Earth's rotation. Roughly speaking, solar noon (the time at which the sun is directly overhead) would drift away from 12:00:00 without leap second corrections. UT1 is computed by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS). TAI was defined such that TAI = [[UT2]] on [[January 1]] [[1958]]. Because UTC is a discontinuous timescale, it is not possible to compute the exact time interval elapsed between two UTC timestamps without consulting a table that describes how many leap seconds occurred during that interval. Therefore, many scientific applications that require precise measurement of long (multi-year) intervals use TAI instead. TAI is also commonly used by systems that can not handle leap seconds. ==See also== * [[Terrestrial Time]] * [[Coordinated Universal Time]] * [[Universal Time]] * [[Sidereal Time]] * [[Time and frequency transfer]] * [[Clock synchronization]] * [[Network Time Protocol]] ==External links== * [http://www.bipm.fr/enus/5_Scientific/c_time/time_1.html ''Bureau International des Poids et Mesures''] * [http://hpiers.obspm.fr IERS website] * [http://www.boulder.nist.gov/timefreq/general/faq.htm ''NIST Time and Frequency FAQs''] <!--Categories--> [[Category:Time scales]] <!--Interwiki--> [[de:Internationale Atomzeit]] [[eo:TAI]] [[es:Tiempo atómico]] [[fr:Temps atomique international]] [[he:&#1492;&#1494;&#1502;&#1503; &#1492;&#1488;&#1496;&#1493;&#1502;&#1497; &#1492;&#1489;&#1497;&#1504;&#1500;&#1488;&#1493;&#1502;&#1497;]] [[id:Waktu Atom Internasional]] [[ja:国際原子時]] [[pl:Mi&#281;dzynarodowy czas atomowy]] [[ru:Международное атомное время]] [[sk:Medzin&#225;rodn&#253; at&#243;mov&#253; &#269;as]] [[zh:&#21407;&#23376;&#26102;]] [[sv:TAI]] Altruism 336 41949335 2006-03-02T20:54:01Z 66.147.108.78 /* Altruism and religion */ '''Altruism''' is considered a belief, a practice, a habit, or an [[ethics|ethical doctrine]]. Many cultures and religious traditions judge altruism to be [[virtue|virtuous]]. In English, the idea was often described as [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden rule of ethics]]. In [[Buddhism]] it is considered a fundamental property of [[human nature]]. ''Altruism'' can refer to: * being helpful to other people with little or no interest in being rewarded for one's efforts (the colloquial definition). This is distinct from merely helping others. * actions that benefit others with a net detrimental or neutral effect on the actor, regardless of the actor's own psychology, motivation, or the cause of his or her actions. This type of altruistic behavior is referred to in [[ecology]] as ''[[Commensalism]]''. * an ethical doctrine that holds that individuals have a moral obligation to help others, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interest or benefit. One who holds such a doctrine is known as an "altruist." The concepts have a long history in [[philosophical]] and [[ethical]] thought, and have more recently become a topic for [[psychologists]], [[sociologists]], [[evolution]]ary biologists, and [[ethology|ethologists]]. While ideas about altruism from one field can have an impact on the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields lead to different perspectives on altruism. Altruism can be distinguished from a feeling of [[loyalty]] and [[duty]]. Altruism focuses on a moral obligation towards all [[humanity]], while duty focuses on a moral obligation towards a specific individual (e.g. a [[king]]), a specific organization (e.g. a [[government]]), or an abstract concept (e.g. [[God]], [[country]] etc). Some individuals may feel both altruism and duty, while others may not. As opposed to altruism, duty is much easier to enforce by an [[authority]]. ==Altruism in ethics== ''Main article: [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]]'' The word "altruism" (''French, altruisme, from autrui: "other people", derived from Latin alter: "other"'') was coined by [[Auguste Comte]], the French founder of [[positivism]], in order to describe the ethical doctrine he supported. He believed that individuals had a moral obligation to serve the interest of others or the "greater good" of humanity. Comte says, in his Catechisme Positiviste, that ''"[the] social point of view cannot tolerate the notion of rights, for such notion rests on individualism. We are born under a load of obligations of every kind, to our predecessors, to our successors, to our contemporaries. After our birth these obligations increase or accumulate, for it is some time before we can return any service.... This ["to live for others"], the definitive formula of human morality, gives a direct sanction exclusively to our instincts of benevolence, the common source of happiness and duty. [Man must serve] Humanity, whose we are entirely."'' As the name of the ethical doctrine is "altruism," doing what the ethical doctrine prescribes has also come to be referred to by the term "altruism" -- serving others through placing their interests above one's own. However, the idea that one has a moral obligation to serve others is much older than Auguste Comte. For example, many of the world's oldest and most widespread [[religion]]s (particularly [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity]]) advocate it. In the [[New Testament]] of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]], it is explained as follows: :"Jesus made answer and said, ''A certain man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho; and he fell among robbers, who both stripped him and beat him, and departed, leaving him half dead. And by chance a certain priest was going down that way: and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. And in like manner a Levite also, when he came to the place, and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was: and when he saw him, he was moved with compassion, and came to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring on [them] oil and wine; and he set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. And on the morrow he took out two shillings, and gave them to the host, and said, Take care of him; and whatsoever thou spendest more, I, when I come back again, will repay thee.'' Which of these three, thinkest thou, proved neighbor unto him that fell among the robbers? And he said, He that showed mercy on him. And Jesus said unto him, '''Go, and do thou likewise.'''" ''(Luke 10: 30-37)'' Philosophers who support [[ethical egoism|egoism]] have argued that altruism is demeaning to the individual and that no moral obligation to help others actually exists. [[Nietzsche]] asserts that altruism is predicated on the assumption that others are more important than one's self and that such a position is degrading and demeaning. He also claims that it was very uncommon for people in Europe to consider the sacrifice of one's own interests for others as virtuous until after the advent of Christianity. [[Ayn Rand]] argued that altruism is the willful sacrifice of one's values, and represents the reversal of morality because only a rationally selfish ethics allows one to pursue the values required for human life. Advocates of altruism as an ethical doctrine maintain that one ought to act, or refrain from acting, so that benefit or [[good (economics)|good]] is bestowed on other people, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interests (Note that refraining from murdering someone, for example, is not altruism since he is not receiving a benefit or being helped, as he already has his life; this would amount to the same thing as ignoring someone). ==Altruism in ethology and evolutionary biology== In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of behavior), altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. This would appear to be counter-intuitive if one presumes that [[natural selection]] acts on the individual. Natural selection, however, acts on the gene pool of the subjects, not on each subject individually. Recent developments in [[game theory]] have provided some explanations for apparent altruism, as have traditional evolutionary analyses. Among the proposed mechanisms are: * [[Behavioral manipulation]] (e.g., by certain [[parasites]] that can alter the behavior of the host, see [http://news.yahoo.com/s/space/20060211/sc_space/mindcontrolbyparasites]) * [[Bounded rationality]] (e.g., [[Herbert Simon]]) * [[Conscience]] * [[Indirect reciprocity]] (e.g., [[reputation]]) * [[Kin selection]] including [[eusociality]] (see also "[[selfish gene]]") * [[Meme]]s (by influencing behavior to favour their own spread, e.g., [[religion]]) * [[Reciprocal altruism]], mutual aid * [[Sexual selection]] * [[Strong reciprocity]] The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]] which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoebae]] until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Social behavior and altruism share many similaraties to the interactions between the many parts (cells, genes) of an organism, but are distinguished by the ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute requirement for its neighbors. ==Altruism in psychology and sociology== If one performs an act beneficial to others with a view to gaining some personal benefit, then it is not an altruistically motivated act. There are several different perspectives on how "benefit" (or "interest") should be defined. A material gain (e.g. money, a physical reward, etc.) is clearly a form of benefit, while others identify and include both material and immaterial gains (affection, respect, happiness, satisfaction etc.) as being philosophically identical benefits. According to ''[[psychological egoism]]'', while people can exhibit altruistic ''behavior'', they cannot have altruistic ''motivations''. Psychological egoists would say that while they might very well spend their lives benefitting others with no material benefit (or a material net loss) to themselves, their most basic motive for doing so is always to further their own interests. For example, it would be alleged that the foundational motive behind a person acting this way is to advance their own psychological well-being ("good feeling"). Critics of this theory often reject it on the grounds that it is [[falsifiability|non-falsifiable]]; in other words, it is designed in such a way as to be impossible to prove or disprove - because immaterial gains such as a "good feeling" cannot be measured or proven to exist in all people performing altruistic acts. Psychological egoism has also been accused of using [[circular logic]]: "If a person willingly performs an act, that means he derives personal enjoyment from it; therefore, people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment". This statement is circular because its conclusion is identical to its hypothesis (it assumes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment, and concludes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment). In contrast to psychological egoism, the ''[[empathy-altruism]]'' hypothesis states that when an individual experiences empathy towards someone in need, the individual will then be altruistically motivated to help that person; that is, the individual will be primarily concerned about that person's welfare, not his or her own. In common parlance, altruism usually means helping another person without expecting material reward from that or other persons, although it may well entail the "internal" benefit of a "good feeling," sense of satisfaction, self-esteem, fulfillment of duty (whether imposed by a religion or ideology or simply one's conscience), or the like. In this way one need not speculate on the motives of the altruist in question. Humans are not exclusively altruistic towards family members, previous co-operators or potential future allies, but can be altruistic towards people they don't know and will never meet. For example, humans donate to international [[charity|charities]] and volunteer their time to help [[society]]'s less fortunate. It strains plausibility to claim that these altruistic deeds are done in the hope of a return favor. The game theory analysis of this 'just in case' strategy, where the principle would be 'always help everyone in case you need to pull in a favor in return', is a decidedly ''non-optimal'' strategy, where the net expenditure of effort (tit) is far greater than the net profit when it occasionally pays off (tat). According to some, it is difficult to believe that these behaviors are solely explained as indirect selfish [[rationality]], be it conscious or sub-conscious. Mathematical formulations of [[kin selection]], along the lines of the [[prisoner's dilemma]], are helpful as far as they go; but what a [[game theory|game-theoretic]] explanation glosses over is the fact that altruistic behavior can be attributed to that apparently mysterious phenomenon, the [[conscience]]. One recent suggestion, proposed by the philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]], was initially developed when considering the problem of so-called 'free riders' in the [[tragedy of the commons]], a larger-scale version of the [[prisoner's dilemma]]. In [[game theory]] terms, a free rider is an [[agent (grammar)|agent]] who draws benefits from a co-operative society without contributing. In a one-to-one situation, free riding can easily be discouraged by a tit-for-tat strategy. But in a larger-scale society, where contributions and benefits are pooled and shared, they can be incredibly difficult to shake off. Imagine an elementary society of co-operative organisms. Co-operative agents interact with each other, each contributing resources and each drawing on the common good. Now imagine a [[rogue]] [[free rider]], an agent who draws a favor ("you scratch my back") and later refuses to return it. The problem is that free riding is always going to be beneficial to individuals at cost to society. How can well-behaved co-operative agents avoid being cheated? Over many generations, one obvious solution is for co-operators to evolve the ability to spot potential free riders in advance and refuse to enter into [[reciprocal]] arrangements with them. Then, the canonical free rider response is to evolve a more convincing [[disguise]], fooling co-operators into co-operating after all. This can lead to an evolutionary [[arms race]]s, with ever-more-sophisticated disguises and ever-more-sophisticated detectors. In this evolutionary arms race, how best might one convince comrades that one ''really is'' a genuine co-operator, not a free rider in disguise? One answer is by ''actually making oneself'' a genuine co-operator, by erecting [[psychological barriers]] to breaking promises, and by advertising this fact to everyone else. In other words, a good solution is for organisms to evolve things that everyone knows will force them to be co-operators - and to make it obvious that they've evolved these things. So evolution will produce organisms who are sincerely moral and who wear their hearts on their sleeves; in short, evolution will give rise to the phenomenon of conscience. This theory, combined with ideas of [[kin selection]] and the one-to-one sharing of benefits, may explain how a blind and fundamentally selfish process can produce a genuinely non-cynical form of altruism that gives rise to the human conscience. Critics of such technical game theory analysis point out that it appears to forget that human beings are rational and emotional. To presume an analysis of human behaviour without including human rationale or emotion is necessarily unrealistically narrow, and treats human beings as if they are mere machines, sometimes called [[Homo economicus]]. Another objection is that often people donate anonymously, so that it is impossible to determine if they really did the altruistic act. Beginning with an understanding that rational human beings benefit from living in a benign universe, logically it follows that particular human beings may gain substantial emotional satisfaction from acts which they perceive to make the world a better place. == Comparison of Altruism and Tit for Tat == Studying the simple strategy "[[Tit for tat]]" in the [[iterated prisoner's dilemma]] problem, [[game theory|game theorists]] argue that "Tit for tat" is much more successful in establishing stable [[cooperation]] among individuals than altruism, defined as ''unconditional'' cooperation, can ever be. "Tit for tat" starts with cooperation in the first step (as altruism does) and then just imitates the behaviour of the partner step by step. If the partner cooperates, then he ''rewards'' him with cooperation, if he doesn't, then he ''punishes'' him by not cooperating in the next step. Confronted with many strategies that try to exploit or abuse cooperation of others, this simple strategy surprisingly proved to be the most successful (see [[The Evolution of Cooperation]]). It was even more successful than these abusing strategies, while unconditional cooperativity (altruism) was one of the most unsuccessful strategies. Confronted with altruistic behaviour, Tit for tat is indistinguishable from pure altruism. [[Robert Axelrod]] and [[Richard Dawkins]] also showed that altruism may be harmful to society by nourishing exploiters and abusers (and making them more and more powerful until they can force everyone to cooperate unconditionally), which is not the case for "Tit for tat". (See also comparison of [[entrepreneur]] and [[entredonneur]]) In the context of [[biology]], the "Tit for tat" strategy is also called [[reciprocal altruism]]. ==Altruism in politics== <table border> <tr> <td colspan='2' align='center'>'''There is currently a [[WP:NPOV|POV]] [[WP:DR|dispute]] as to the wording of the section shown below.'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign='top'> If one is an adherent to the ''ethical doctrine'' called altruism (that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others), then one will support the kind of politics that one believes to be most effective in furthering the welfare of others, regardless of the effect this may have on oneself. Since there is no general consensus on what kind of politics results in the greatest benefit for others, different altruists may have very different political views. With regard to their political convictions, altruists may be divided in two broad groups: Those who believe altruism is a matter of personal choice (and therefore selfishness can and should be tolerated), and those who believe that altruism is a moral ideal which should be embraced, if possible, by all human beings. A prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is [[Lysander Spooner]], who, in ''Natural Law'', writes: "''Man, no doubt, owes many other moral duties to his fellow men; such as to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, care for the sick, protect the defenceless, assist the weak, and enlighten the ignorant. But these are simply moral duties, of which each man must be his own judge, in each particular case, as to whether, and how, and how far, he can, or will, perform them.''" The latter branch of altruist political thought, on the other hand, argues that [[egoism]] should be actively discouraged, and that altruists have a duty not only to help other people, but to teach those people to help each other as well. Thus, in politics, these altruists almost always take a [[left-wing]] stance, ranging from moderate [[social democracy]] to [[socialism]] or even [[communism]]. Moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of [[tax|taxation-funded]] government programs aimed at benefiting the needy (for example [[transfer payments]], such as [[social welfare]], or [[public healthcare]] and [[public education]]). Less obvious things such as a law that motorists pull over to let emergency vehicles pass may also be justified by appealing to the altruism ethic. Finally, radical altruists of this branch may take things further and advocate some form of [[collectivism]] or [[communalism]]. On a somewhat related note, altruism is often held - even by non-altruists - to be the kind of ethic that should guide the actions of politicians and other people in positions of power. Such people are usually expected to set their own interests aside and serve the populace. When they do not, they may be criticized as defaulting on what is believed to be an ethical obligation to place the interests of others above their own. </td> <td valign='top'> Politicians often speak of a moral obligation of individuals to help others. For example, [[George Bush]], speaking to the [[United Nations]] said: "We have a moral obligation to help others -- and a moral duty to make sure our actions are effective." If one is an adherent to the ''ethical doctrine'' called altruism (that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others), it can become a moral justification for forcing, or advocating forcing individuals to help others. In the realm of politics, the altruist may employ an agent in the form of [[government]] to enforce this supposed moral obligation. This is not to say that an ethical altruist will ''necessarily'' force this on anyone. An altruist may allow others the freedom to behave in a manner they believe to be immoral or selfish. In other words, their ethical doctrine would not manifest itself politically. With regard those who believe benevolence is a moral obligation, altruists may be divided in two broad groups: Those who believe helping others is a moral obligation but should not be enforced on individuals. And, those who believe that since helping others is a moral obligation, forcing individuals to help others if they are not willing on their own is justified. A prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is [[Lysander Spooner]], who, in ''Natural Law'', writes: "''Man, no doubt, owes many other moral duties to his fellow men; such as to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, care for the sick, protect the defenceless, assist the weak, and enlighten the ignorant. But these are simply moral duties, of which each man must be his own judge, in each particular case, as to whether, and how, and how far, he can, or will, perform them.''" The latter branch of altruist political thought, on the other hand, argues that [[egoism]] should be actively discouraged, and that individuals should be forced to help other people. Thus, in politics, these altruists almost always take a [[left-wing]] stance, ranging from moderate [[social democracy]] to [[socialism]] or even [[communism]]. Moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of [[tax|taxation-funded]] government programs aimed at benefiting the needy (for example [[transfer payments]], such as [[social welfare]], or [[public healthcare]] and [[public education]]). Finally, radical altruists of this branch may take things to an extreme and advocate some form of state-enforced [[collectivism]], [[communalism]], or communism. This is in line with August Comte's philosophy (who coined the term altruism), which argues against individual rights. Finally, many believe that helping others or serving society is not a moral obligation at all, but that altrusm is an arbitrary pronouncement not philosophically derivable. These oppose all government-enforced charity. [[Individualist anarchist]] [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in 1847 warns of enforcing charity: "That is why charity, the prime virtue of the Christian, the legitimate hope of the socialist, the object of all the efforts of the economist, is a social vice the moment it is made a principle of constitution and a law; that is why certain economists have been able to say that legal charity had caused more evil in society than proprietary usurpation" (''The Philosophy of Poverty''). Comte asserts that individual rights are not compatible with the supposed obligation to serve others. Some argue that the ethical doctrine, if taken to its logical conclusion, leads to tyranny. </td> </tr> </table> ==Altruism and religion== {{sect-stub}} All the major world [[religion]]s promote altruism as a very important moral value. [[Christianity]] and [[Buddhism]] place particular emphasis on altruistic morality, as noted above, but [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] and [[Hinduism]] also promote altruistic behavior. The [[Good Samaritan]] is a famous [[New Testament]] parable appearing only in the [[Gospel of Luke]] (10:25-37). The parable is told by [[Jesus]] illustrating altruism. <!-- This section should continue by quoting altruism-related verses from the holy books of the aforementioned religions --> ==See also== * [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]] * [[Altruism in animals]] * [[Psychology]] * [[Euphemism]] * [[Will (law)]] * [[Trust (law)]] * [[Tit for tat]] * [[Reciprocal altruism]] ==External links== *[http://www.altruists.org/about/altruism What is Altruism? (Altruists International)] *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/ Biological Altruism ] *[http://www.humboldt.edu/~altruism/home.html The Altruistic Personality and Prosocial Behavior Institute at Humboldt State University] *[http://www.iipbaar.org International Institute for Prosocial Behavior and Altruism Research] ==References== *Batson, C.D. (1991). ''The altruism question''. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. *Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U. ([[23 October]] [[2003]]). The nature of human altruism. In ''Nature, 425'', 785 &ndash; 791. *[[August Comte]], ''Catechisme positiviste'' (1852) or ''Catechism of Positivism'', tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891) * Oord, Thomas Jay, Science of Love (Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 2004). *[[Nietzsche, Friedrich]], ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'' *[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1847) *[[Lysander Spooner]], ''Natural Law'' *[[Ayn Rand]], ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]'' *[[Matt Ridley]], ''[[The Origins Of Virtue]]'' *Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995. * ''[[The Evolution of Cooperation]]'', [[Robert Axelrod]], Basic Books, ISBN 0465021212 *''[[The Selfish Gene]]'', [[Richard Dawkins]] (1990), second edition -- includes two chapters about the evolution of cooperation, ISBN 0192860925 *[[Robert Wright_(journalist)|Robert Wright]], ''The moral animal'', Vintage, 1995, ISBN 0679763996. {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:Ethics]] [[Category:Evolutionary biology]] [[Category:philanthropy]] [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[Category:Social psychology]] [[Category:Sociology]] [[Category:Virtues]] [[Category:Motivation]] [[bg:Алтруизъм]] [[de:Altruismus]] [[es:Altruismo]] [[fi:Altruismi]] [[fr:Altruisme]] [[he:זולתנות]] [[it:Altruismo]] [[lt:Altruizmas]] [[nl:Altruïsme]] [[pl:Altruizm]] [[sv:Altruism]] Ang Lee 337 42100410 2006-03-03T21:00:09Z 209.167.177.36 /* Actor */ [[Image:Ang_lee.jpg|frame|Lee accepting the Best Foreign Film award for ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' at the 73rd Academy Awards]] '''Ang Lee''' (Chinese: 李安; Pinyin: Lǐ Ān ) (born [[October 23]], [[1954]]) is an [[Academy Award]]-winning [[film director]] from [[Taiwan]]. ==Early life== Ang Lee was born and raised in [[Pingtung County|Pingtung, Taiwan]] and educated in the [[United States]], where he found success as a [[Hollywood]] director, well-known for his [[wuxia]] film ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (2000). He completed his bachelor's degree in Theater from the [[University of Illinois]] and received his [[MFA]] from [[New York University]]'s [[Tisch School of the Arts]], where in 1984 he made a thesis film called ''Fine Line''. He was a classmate of [[Spike Lee]] and worked on the crew of the latter Lee's thesis film, ''Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads''. ==Career== Many of his films have focused on the interactions between modernity and tradition. His films have also tended to have a light-hearted comic tone which marks a break from the tragic historical realism which characterized Taiwanese filmmaking after the end of the martial law period in 1987. Lee's films also tend to draw on deep secrets and internal torment that begin to come to the surface such as the gay-themed films ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (1993), ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005), the martial arts epic ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (2000) and the comic book adaptation ''[[Hulk (film)|Hulk]]'' (2003) He received the Dartmouth Film Award in 2002, along with [[Meryl Streep]]. Lee's film ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005) won the best film award at the Venice International Film Festival and was named 2005's best film by the Los Angeles film critics. It also won the [[Golden Globe Award]] for Best Motion Picture — Drama, with Lee winning the [[Golden Globe Award]] for Best Director. Lee also won the Best Director award for the film at the 2006 British Academy Awards (BAFTAs). In January 2006, Brokeback scored a leading 8 [[Academy Award]] nominations including Lee for Best Director. The film is considered to be the frontrunner for the March 5, 2006 ceremony. He taught [[Meryl Streep]]'s son and [[Kai Christophe Wong]], initially scheduled for the lead in ''[[Dark Matter]]''. ==Private life== His wife, Jane, is a microbiologist; they have two children, Haan and Mason. He is a huge fan of the [[Vancouver Canucks]] of the [[National Hockey League]]. He kept his directing aspirations a secret because his culture did not encourage ambitions in a non-practical career like film. ==Films== === Director === * ''[[Hulk 2]]'' (2007) * ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005) * ''[[Hulk (film)|Hulk]]'' (2003) * ''[[The Hire]]'' (BMW Short Movies) - Chosen (2002) * ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (Chinese: 臥虎藏龍) (2000) * ''[[Ride with the Devil]]'' (1999) * ''[[The Ice Storm]]'' (1997) * ''[[Sense and Sensibility (film)|Sense and Sensibility]]'' (1995) * ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) * ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993) * ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992) * ''Fine Line'' (1984) * ''Shades of the lake'' (1982) * ''I Love Chinese Food'' (1981) * ''Beat the Artist'' (1981) * ''The Runner''' (1980) * ''One Day of Ma-Chuan Chen'' (Chinese: 陳媽勸的一天) * ''Laziness in a Saturday Afternoon'' (Chinese: 星期六下午的懶散) ''See Also:'' [[:Category:Films directed by Ang Lee|Films directed by Ang Lee]] === Writer === * ''[[Siao Yu]]'' (Chinese: 少女小漁) (1995) * ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) * ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993) * ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992) === Actor === * ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993) * ''[[The Hulk]]''(2003) === Editing === * ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) * ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992) === Producer === * ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (Chinese: 臥虎藏龍) (2000) * ''[[Siao Yu]]'' (Chinese: 少女小漁) (1995) ==External links== * {{imdb name|id=0000487|name=Ang Lee}} * [http://www.thecheappop.com/heath.html Ang Lee on Brokeback] * [http://movie.cca.gov.tw/PEOPLE/people_inside.asp?rowid=70&id=1 Ang Lee] (Chinese) [[Category:1954 births|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Living people|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:American film directors|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Hulk|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Taiwanese Americans|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Taiwanese film directors|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Best Director Golden Globe]] [[Category:Best Director Oscar nominees]] [[de:Ang Lee]] [[es:Ang Lee]] [[et:Ang Lee]] [[fi:Ang Lee]] [[fr:Ang Lee]] [[hr:Ang Lee]] [[it:Ang Lee]] [[ja:アン・リー]] [[ka:ანგ ლი]] [[nl:Ang Lee]] [[pt:Ang Lee]] [[zh:李安]] AutoRacing 338 15899073 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Auto racing]] Ayn Rand 339 edit=sysop:move=sysop 40260861 2006-02-19T08:35:36Z Woohookitty 159678 {{protected}} {{Infobox_Philosopher | <!-- Scroll down to edit this page --> <!-- Philosopher Category --> region = Western Philosophy | era = [[Contemporary philosophy]], | color = #B0C4DE | <!-- Image and Caption --> image_name = Ayn_Rand1.jpg| image_caption = Ayn Rand: novelist and philosopher| <!-- Information --> name = Ayn Rand | birth = [[February 2]], [[1905]] | death = [[March 6]], [[1982]]| school_tradition = [[Objectivist philosophy]] | main_interests = [[Objectivist metaphysics]], [[Objectivist ethics]]| influences = [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Nietzsche]] | influenced = [[Leonard Peikoff]], [[Harry Binswanger]], [[John Ridpath]], [[Tara Smith]], [[David Kelley]], [[Dr. Frank R. Wallace]]| notable_ideas = |[[Rational self-interest]]}} '''Ayn Rand''' ({{IPA2|ajn ɹænd}}, {{OldStyleDate|February 2|1905|January 20}} &ndash; [[March 6]] [[1982]]), born '''Alissa Zinovievna Rosenbaum''', was best known for her [[philosophy]] of [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]] and her novels ''[[We the Living]]'', ''[[Anthem (novel)|Anthem]]'', ''[[The Fountainhead]]'', and ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. Her philosophy and her fiction both emphasize, above all, the concepts of [[individualism]], rational [[egoism]] ("[[Objectivist ethics|rational self-interest]]"), and [[capitalism]], which she believed should be implemented fully via ''[[Laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]]. Her politics has been described as [[minarchism]] and [[libertarianism]], though she never used the first term and detested the second. Her novels were based upon the projection of the Randian [[hero]], a man whose ability and independence causes conflict with the masses, but who perseveres nevertheless to achieve his values. Rand viewed this hero as the ideal, and the express goal of her fiction was to showcase such heroes. She believed: *That man must choose his values and actions by reason; *That the individual has a right to exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing self to others nor others to self; and *That no one has the right to seek values from others by physical force, or impose ideas on others by physical force. ==Biography== ===Early life=== Rand was born in [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]], and was the eldest of three daughters of a [[Jew]]ish family. Her parents were [[agnostic]] and largely non-observant. From an early age, she displayed a strong interest in literature and films. She started writing screenplays and novels from the age of seven. Her mother taught her French and subscribed to a magazine featuring stories for boys, where Rand found her first childhood hero: Cyrus Paltons, an Indian army officer in a [[Rudyard Kipling]]-style story called "The Mysterious Valley". Throughout her youth, she read the novels of [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] and other Romantic writers, and expressed a passionate enthusiasm toward the Romantic movement as a whole. She discovered [[Victor Hugo]] at the age of thirteen, and fell deeply in love with his novels. Later, she cited him as her favorite novelist and the greatest novelist of world literature. She studied philosophy and history at the [[Saint Petersburg State University|University of Petrograd]]. Her major literary discoveries in university were the works of [[Edmond Rostand]], [[Friedrich Schiller]] and [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]. She admired Rostand for his richly romantic imagination and Schiller for his grand, heroic scale. She admired Dostoevsky for his sense of drama and his intense moral judgments, but was deeply against his philosophy and his sense of life. She continued to write short stories and screenplays and wrote sporadically in her diary, which contained intensely anti-Soviet ideas. She also encountered the philosophical ideas of [[Nietzsche]], and loved his exaltation of the heroic and independent individual who embraced egoism and rejected altruism in ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]''. Though an early fan of Nietzsche, she eventually became critical, seeing his philosophy as emphasizing emotion over reason. Nevertheless, as Allan Gotthelf points out in book ''On Ayn Rand'', "the influence was real." She did still retain an admiration for some of his ideas, and quoted Nietzsche in the introduction to the 25th aniversary edition of ''The Fountainhead'': "''The noble soul has reverence for itself.''" Her greatest influence by far is [[Aristotle]], especially ''Organon (Logic)''. Although Leonard Peikoff, promoter of her ideas, says she is the greatest philosopher who ever lived, she herself considered Aristotle the greatest philosopher ever, and stated that he was the only philosopher who had influenced her (this is probably because, as she has stated, she did not include her own work when analyzing the culture.) She then entered the State Institute for Cinema Arts in 1924 to study screenwriting; in late 1925, however, she was granted a [[Visa (document)|visa]] to visit American relatives. She arrived in the [[United States]] in February 1926, at the age of twenty-one. After a brief stay with her relatives in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], she resolved never to return to the [[Soviet Union]], and set out for [[Hollywood]] to become a [[screenwriter]]. She then changed her name to "Ayn Rand". There is a story told that she named herself after the [[Remington Rand]] [[typewriter]], but she began using the name Ayn Rand before the typewriter was first sold. She stated that her first name, 'Ayn', was an adaptation of the name of a Finnish writer. This may have been the Finnish-Estonian author [[Aino Kallas]], but variations of this name are common in [[Finnish language|Finnish]]-speaking regions. ===Major works=== Initially, Rand struggled in [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. While working as an [[extra (drama)|extra]] on [[Cecil B. DeMille]]'s ''[[The King of Kings|King of Kings]]'', she intentionally bumped into an aspiring young actor, [[Frank O'Connor (actor)|Frank O'Connor]], who caught her eye. The two married in 1929. In 1931, Rand became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States. Her first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''[[Red Pawn]]'' in 1932 to [[Universal Studios]]. Rand then wrote the play ''[[The Night of January 16th]]'' in 1934, which was highly successful, and published two novels, ''[[We the Living]]'' (1936), and ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' (1938). While ''We the Living'' met with mixed reviews in the U.S. and positive reviews in the U.K., ''Anthem'' received significiant and positive reviews only in England, due in part to its odd publication history. She was up against [[The Red Decade ]] in America, and ''Anthem'' did not even find a publisher in the United States; it was first published in England. Besides, Rand had still not perfected her literary style and these novels cannot be considered representative. Without Rand's knowledge or permission, ''[[We The Living]]'' was made into a pair of films, ''Noi vivi'' and ''Addio, Kira'' in 1942 by Scalara Films, [[Rome]]. They were nearly censored by the [[Italy|Italian]] government under [[Benito Mussolini]], but they were permitted because the novel upon which they were based was anti-Soviet. The films were successful and the public easily realized that they were as much against Fascism as Communism, and the government banned them quickly thereafter. These films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as ''We the Living'' in 1986. Rand's first major professional success came with her best-selling novel ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943), which she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel was rejected by twelve publishers, who thought it was too intellectual and opposed to the mainstream of American thought. It was finally accepted by the [[Bobbs-Merrill Company]] publishing house, thanks mainly to a member of the editorial board, Archibald Ogden, who praised the book in the highest terms and finally prevailed. Eventually, ''The Fountainhead'' was a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. The theme of ''The Fountainhead'' is "individualism and collectivism in man's soul". It features the lives of five main characters. The hero, Howard Roark, is Rand's ideal, a noble soul ''par excellence'', an architect who is firmly and serenely devoted to his own ideals and believes that no man should copy the style of another in any field, especially architecture. All the other characters in the novel demand that he renounce his values, but Roark maintains his integrity. Unlike traditional heroes who launch into long and passionate monologues about their integrity and the unfairness of the world; Roark, in contrast, does it with a disdainful, almost contemptuous taciturnity and laconicism. Rand's [[magnum opus]], ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', was published in 1957, becoming an international bestseller. ''Atlas Shrugged'' is often seen as Rand's most complete statement of the [[Objectivist philosophy]] in any of her works of fiction. In its appendix, she offered this summary: :"My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute." The theme of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is "The role of man's mind in society". Rand upheld the industrialist as one of the most admirable members of any society and fiercely opposed the popular resentment accorded to industrialists. This led her to envision a novel wherein the industrialists of America go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway. The American economy and its society in general slowly start to collapse. The government responds by increasing the already stifling controls on industrial concerns. The novel deals with issues as complex and divergent as sex, music, medicine, politics, and human ability. Along with [[Nathaniel Branden]], his wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]], and others including [[Alan Greenspan]] and [[Leonard Peikoff]], (jokingly designated "[[The Ayn Rand Collective|The Collective]]"), Rand launched the [[Objectivism|Objectivist]] movement to promote her philosophy. ===The Objectivist movement=== ''Main article: The [[Objectivist movement]]'' In 1950 Rand moved to [[New York City]], where in 1951 she met the young [[psychology]] student [[Nathaniel Branden]] [http://www.nathanielbranden.com], who had read her book, ''The Fountainhead'', at the age of 14. Branden, then 19, enjoyed discussing Rand's emerging Objectivist philosophy with her. Together, Branden and some of his other friends formed a group that they dubbed the [[Collective]], which included some participation by future Federal Reserve chairman [[Alan Greenspan]]. After several years, Rand and Branden's friendly relationship blossomed into a romantic affair, despite the fact that both were married at the time. Their spouses were both convinced to accept this affair but it eventually led to the separation and then divorce of [[Nathaniel Branden]] from his wife. Although one of Rand's most strident philosophical points was never to bow to societal pressure or norms, Ayn Rand abandoned her own name (see top of page), as did Branden (born Nathan Blumenthal). Throughout the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]], Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through both her fiction [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_fiction] and non-fiction [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_nonfiction] works, and by giving talks at several east-coast universities, largely through the [[Nathaniel Branden Institute]] ("the NBI") which Branden established to promote her philosophy. After a convoluted series of separations, Rand abruptly ended her relationship with both Nathaniel Branden and his wife, [[Barbara Branden]], in 1968 when she learned of Nathaniel Branden's affair with Patrecia Scott (this later affair did not overlap chronologically with the earlier Branden/Rand affair). Rand refused to have any further dealings with the NBI. She then published a letter in "The Objectivist" announcing her repudiation of Branden for various reasons, including dishonesty, but did not mention their affair or her role in the schism. The two never reconciled, and Branden remained a ''persona non grata'' in the Objectivist movement. [[Image:ayn rand stamp.jpg|222px|frame|left|1999 U.S. [[postage stamp]] honoring Rand. Art by [[Nick Gaetano]].]] Barbara Branden presented an account of the breakup of the affair in her book, ''The Passion of Ayn Rand.'' She describes the encounter between Nathaniel and Rand, saying that Rand slapped him numerous times, and denounced him in these words: "If you have an ounce of morality left in you, an ounce of psychological health — you'll be impotent for the next twenty years! And if you achieve any potency, you'll know it's a sign of still worse moral degradation!" Conflicts continued in the wake of the break with Branden and the subsequent collapse of the NBI. Many of her closest "Collective" friends began to part ways, and during the late 70's, her activities within the formal Objectivist movement began to decline, a situation which increased after the death of her husband in 1979. One of her final projects was work on a television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged''. Rand died of heart failure on [[March 6]], [[1982]] in [[New York City]], years after having successfully battled cancer, and was interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]], [[Valhalla, New York]]. [[Image:Ayn_Rand_Marker.jpg|thumb|right|324px|Grave marker of [[Frank O'Connor (actor)|Frank O'Connor]] and Ayn Rand.]] ===Philosophical influences=== Rand rejected virtually all other philosophical schools. She acknowledged a shared intellectual lineage with [[Aristotle]] and [[John Locke]], and more generally with the philosophies of the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the [[Age of Reason]]. She occasionally remarked with approval on specific philosophical positions of, e.g., [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Thomas Aquinas]]. She seems also to have respected the American rationalist [[Brand Blanshard]]. However, she regarded most philosophers as at best incompetent and at worst downright evil. She singled out [[Immanuel Kant]] as the most influential of the latter sort. Nonetheless, there are connections between Rand's views and those of other philosophers. She acknowledged that she had been influenced at an early age by the writings of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Though she later repudiated his thought and reprinted her first novel, ''[[We The Living]]'', with some wording changes in 1959, her own thought grew out of critical interaction with it. Generally, her political thought is in the tradition of [[classical liberalism]]. She expressed qualified enthusiasm for the economic thought of [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Henry Hazlitt]]. Though not mentioned as an influence by her specifically, parallels between her works and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]'s essay [[Self-Reliance]] do exist. Later Objectivists, such as [[Richard Salsman]], have claimed that Rand's economic theories are implicitly more supportive of the doctrines of [[Jean-Baptiste Say]], though Rand herself was likely not acquainted with his work. ===Politics and House Committee on Un-American Activities testimony=== Rand's political views were radically pro-[[capitalist]], [[anti-statist]], and [[anti-Communist]]. Her writings praised above all the human individual and the creative genius of which one is capable. She exalted what she saw as the heroic [[American values]] of egoism and individualism. Rand also had a strong dislike for [[mysticism]], [[religion]], and compulsory [[charity]], all of which she believed helped foster a crippling culture of resentment towards individual human happiness and success. Rand detested many prominent [[liberalism|liberal]] and [[conservative]] politicians of her time, even including prominent anti-Communist crusaders like Presidents [[Harry S. Truman]] and [[Ronald Reagan]], and Senators [[Hubert H. Humphrey]] and [[Joseph McCarthy]] (although she argued that ''[[McCarthyism]]'' was a myth, and that the accusation of McCarthyism was used as an [[ad hominem]] argument to discredit anti-Communists). In 1947, during the [[Red Scare]], Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]] (see [[http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html]]). Rand's testimony involved analysis of the 1943 film ''[[Song of Russia]]''. While many believe that Ayn Rand disclosed the names of members of the Communist Party in the U.S., thus exposing them to [[blacklisting]], her testimony consisted entirely of comments regarding the disparity between her experiences in the [[Soviet Union]] and the fanciful portrayal of it in the film. Rand argued that the movie grossly misrepresented the socioeconomic conditions in the Soviet Union. She told the committee that the film presented life in the USSR as being much better than it actually was. Apparently this 1943 film was intentional wartime [[propaganda]] by U.S. patriots, trying to put their Soviet allies in [[World War II]] under the best possible light. After the HUAC hearings, when Ayn Rand was asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of their investigations, she described the process as "futile". ==Legacy== Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including [[Alan Greenspan]]. A six-foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket. [http://www.eckerd.edu/aspec/writers/atlas_shrugged.htm] In 1985, [[Leonard Peikoff]], a surviving member of "[[The Ayn Rand Collective|The Collective]]" and Ayn Rand's designated heir, established "The [[Ayn Rand Institute]]: The Center for the Advancement of Objectivism" (ARI). The Institute has since registered the name ''Ayn Rand'' as a trademark, despite Rand's desire that her name never be used to promote the philosophy she developed. Rand expressed her wish to keep her name and the philosophy of Objectivism separate to ensure the survival of her ideas. Another schism in the movement occurred in 1989, when Objectivist [[David Kelley]] wrote "A Question of Sanction," [http://www.wetheliving.com/boston/sanction.html] in which he defended his choice to speak to non-Objectivist [[Libertarianism|libertarian]] groups. Kelley stated that Objectivism was not a "closed system" and should engage with other philosophies. Peikoff, in an article for ''[[The Intellectual Activist]]'' called "Fact and Value" [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_f-v], argued that Objectivism is, indeed, a closed system, and that truth and moral goodness are directly related. Peikoff expelled Kelley from his movement, whereupon Kelley founded The Institute for Objectivist Studies (now known as "[[The Objectivist Center]]"). Rand and Objectivism are less well known outside [[North America]], although there are pockets of interest in [[Europe]] and [[Australia]], and her novels are reported to be popular in [[India]] ([http://www.theatlasphere.com/metablog/000058.php]) and to be gaining an increasingly wider audience in [[Africa]]. Her work has had little effect on academic philosophy, for her followers are, with some notable exceptions, drawn from the non-academic world. [[Neil Peart]], the drummer and lyricist with the Canadian progressive rock band [[Rush (band)|Rush]], was influenced by Rand philosophy during the early years of the band. The most notable instances of this are the track "Anthem" from the album ''[[Fly By Night]]'' ([[1975]]) and the title track from the album ''[[2112]]'' ([[1976]]). ==Controversy== Rand's views are controversial. Religious and socially conservative thinkers have criticized her atheism. Many adherents and practitioners of [[continental philosophy]] criticize her celebration of rationality and self-interest. Within the dominant philosophical movement in the English-speaking world, [[analytic philosophy]], Rand's work has been mostly ignored. No leading research university in this tradition considers Rand or Objectivism to be an important philosophical specialty or research area, as is documented by [[Brian Leiter]]'s report [http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/]. Some academics, however, are trying to bring Rand's work into the mainstream. For instance, the [http://www.aynrandsociety.org/ Ayn Rand Society], founded in 1987, is affiliated with the [[American Philosophical Association]]. In 2006, [[Cambridge University Press]] will publish a volume on Rand's ethical theory written by ARI-affiliated scholar [[Tara Smith]]. A notable exception to the general lack of attention paid to Rand is the essay "On the Randian Argument" by [[Harvard University]] philosopher [[Robert Nozick]], which appears in his collection ''Socratic Puzzles''. Nozick's own [[libertarian]] political conclusions are similar to Rand's, but his essay criticizes her foundational argument in ethics, which claims that one's own life is, for each individual, the only ultimate value because it makes all other values possible. To make this argument sound, Nozick argues that Rand still needs to explain why someone could not rationally prefer the state of eventually dying and having no values. Thus, he argues, her attempt to deduce the morality of selfishness is essentially an instance of assuming the conclusion or [[begging the question]] and that her solution to [[David Hume]]'s famous [[is-ought problem]] is unsatisfactory. Nevertheless, Nozick respected Rand as an author and noted that he found her books enjoyable and thought-provoking. Rand has sometimes been viewed with suspicion for her practice of presenting her philosophy in fiction and non-fiction books aimed at a general audience rather than publishing in [[peer-review]]ed journals. Rand's defenders note that she is part of a long tradition of authors who wrote philosophically rich fiction — including [[Dante]], [[John Milton]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], and [[Albert Camus]], and that other philosophers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] presented their philosophies in both fictional and non-fictional forms. Other critics argue that Rand’s idealistic philosophy and her [[Romantic]] literary style are not applicable to the inhabited world. In particular, these critics claim that Rand's novels are made up of unrealistic and one-dimensional characters. They criticize the portrayal of the Objectivist heroes as incredibly intelligent, unencumbered by doubt, wealthy, and free of flaws, in contrast to the frequent portrayal of the antagonists as weak, pathetic, full of uncertainty, and lacking in imagination and talent. Defenders of Rand point out counterexamples to these criticisms: neither Eddie Willers nor Cherryl Taggart (both positive characters) is especially gifted or intelligent, but both are characters of dignity and respect; Leo Kovalensky suffers enormously due to his inability to cope with the brutality and banality of communism; Andrei Taganov dies after realizing his philosophical errors; Dominique Francon is initially bitterly unhappy because she believes evil is powerful; Hank Rearden is torn by inner emotional conflict brought on by a philosophical contradiction; and Dagny Taggart thinks that she alone is capable of saving the world. Two of her main protagonists, Howard Roark and John Galt, did not begin life wealthy. Though Rand believed that, under capitalism, valuable contributions will routinely be rewarded by wealth, she certainly did not think that wealth made a person virtuous. In fact, she presents many vicious bureaucrats and waspish elitists who use [[statism]] to accumulate money and power. Moreover, Hank Rearden is exploited because of his social naïveté. As for the purportedly weak and pathetic villains, Rand's defenders point out that Ellsworth Toohey is represented as being a great strategist and communicator from an early age, and Dr. Robert Stadler is a brilliant scientist. Rand herself replied to these literary criticisms (and in advance of much of them) with her essay "The Goal of My Writing" (1963). There, and in other essays collected in her book ''[[The Romantic Manifesto|The Romantic Manifesto: A Philosophy of Literature]]'' (2nd rev. ed. 1975), Rand makes it clear that her goal is to project her vision of an ideal man: not man as he is, but man as he might and ought to be. Rand's views on sex have also led to some controversy. According to her, "For a woman ''qua'' woman, the essence of femininity is hero-worship – the desire to look up to man." (1968) Some in the [[BDSM]] community see her work as relevant and supportive, particularly ''The Fountainhead'' [http://www.mistressmorgana.com/site04/read_rec.html]. Another source of controversy is Rand's view that homosexuality is "immoral" and "disgusting" [http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/homo/atlasphere.htm], as well as her support for the right of businesses to discriminate on the basis of homosexuality, such as in their hiring practices. Specifically, she stated that "there is a psychological immorality at the root of homosexuality" because "it involves psychological flaws, corruptions, errors, or unfortunate premises". On the topic of non-governmental discrimination, Rand's defenders argue that her support for its legality was motivated by holding property rights above civil or human rights (as she did not believe that human rights were distinct from property rights) so it did not constitute an endorsement of the morality of the prejudice itself. In support of this, they cite Rand's opposition to some prejudices &mdash; though not homophobia &mdash; on moral grounds, in essays like 'Racism' and 'Global Balkanization', while still arguing for the right of individuals and businesses to act on such prejudice without government intervention. [http://forum.objectivismonline.net/lofiversion/index.php/t2277.html]. ==Bibliography== ===Fiction=== * ''[[Night of January 16th]]'' (1934) * ''[[We The Living]]'' (1936) * ''[[Anthem (novel)|Anthem]]'' (1938) * ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943) * ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957) ====Posthumous fiction==== * ''Three Plays'' (2005) ===Nonfiction=== * ''For the New Intellectual'' (1961) * ''The Virtue of Selfishness'' (with [[Nathaniel Branden]]) ([[1964]]) * ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' (with [[Nathaniel Branden]], [[Alan Greenspan]], and [[Robert Hessen]]) ([[1966]]) * ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' (1967) * ''[[The Romantic Manifesto]]'' (1969) * ''The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'' (1971) * ''Philosophy: Who Needs It'' (1982) ====Posthumous nonfiction==== * ''[[The Early Ayn Rand]]'' (edited and with commentary by [[Leonard Peikoff]]) ([[1984]]) * ''The Voice of Reason: Essays in Objectivist Thought'' (edited by [[Leonard Peikoff]]; additional essays by [[Leonard Peikoff]] and [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1989]]) * ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' second edition (edited by [[Harry Binswanger]]; additional material by [[Leonard Peikoff]]) ([[1990]]) * ''Letters of Ayn Rand'' (edited by [[Michael S. Berliner]]) ([[1995]]) * ''Journals of Ayn Rand'' (edited by [[David Harriman]]) ([[1997]]) * ''Ayn Rand's Marginalia : Her Critical Comments on the Writings of over Twenty Authors'' (edited by [[Robert Mayhew]]) ([[1998]]) * ''The Ayn Rand Column: Written for the Los Angeles Times'' (edited by [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1998]]) * ''Russian Writings on Hollywood'' (edited by [[Michael S. Berliner]]) ([[1999]]) * ''Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'' (expanded edition of ''The New Left''; edited and with additional essays by [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1999]]) * ''The Art of Fiction'' (edited by [[Tore Boeckmann]]) ([[2000]]) * ''The Art of Nonfiction'' (edited by [[Robert Mayhew]]) ([[2001]]) * ''The Objectivism Research CD-ROM'' (collection of most of Rand's works in CD-ROM format) (2001) * ''Ayn Rand Answers'' (2005) ==References== In addition to Rand's own works (listed above), the following references discuss Rand's life and/or literary work. References that discuss her philosophy can be found in the [[bibliography of work on Objectivism]]. <div style="font-size: 90%"> * {{cite book | last = Baker | first = James T. | authorlink = James T. Baker | title = Ayn Rand | publisher = Twayne | location = Boston | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0-8057-7497-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Branden | first = Barbara | authorlink = Barbara Branden | title = The Passion of Ayn Rand | publisher = Doubleday &amp; Company | location = Garden City, New York | year = 1986 | id = ISBN 0-385-19171-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Branden | first = Nathaniel | authorlink = Nathaniel Branden | title = My Years with Ayn Rand | publisher = Jossey Bass | location = San Francisco | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-7879-4513-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Branden | first = Nathaniel | authorlink = Nathaniel Branden | coauthors = [[Barbara Branden]] | title = Who Is Ayn Rand? | publisher = Random House | location = New York | year = 1962 }} * {{cite book | last = Britting | first = Jeff | authorlink = Jeff Britting | title = Ayn Rand | publisher = Overlook Duckworth | location = New York | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 1-58567-406-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Gladstein | first = Mimi Reisel | authorlink = Mimi Reisel Gladstein | title = The New Ayn Rand Companion | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Connecticut | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-313-30321-5 }} * {{cite book | author = [[Mimi Reisel Gladstein|Gladstein, Mimi Reisel]] and [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra|Sciabarra, Chris Matthew]] (editors) | title = Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand | publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press | location = University Park, Pennsylvania | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-271-01830-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Hamel | first = Virginia L.L. | authorlink = Virginia L.L. Hamel | title = In Defense of Ayn Rand | publisher = New Beacon | location = Brookline, Massachusetts | year = 1990 }} * {{cite book | last = Mayhew | first = Robert | authorlink = Robert Mayhew | title = Ayn Rand and Song of Russia | publisher = Rowman &amp; Littlefield | location = Lanham, Maryland | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-8108-5276-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Mayhew | first = Robert | authorlink = Robert Mayhew | title = Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem | publisher = Rowman &amp; Littlefield | location = Lanham, Maryland | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-7391-1031-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Mayhew | first = Robert | authorlink = Robert Mayhew | title = Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living | publisher = Rowman &amp; Littlefield | location = Lanham, Maryland | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-7391-0698-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Paxton | first = Michael | authorlink = Michael Paxton | title = Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life (The Companion Book) | publisher = Gibbs Smith | location = Layton, Utah | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-87905-845-5 }} * {{cite journal | last = Peikoff | first = Leonard | authorlink = Leonard Peikoff | title = My Thirty Years with Ayn Rand: An Intellectual Memoir | journal = The Objectivist Forum | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | year = 1987 | pages = 1–16 }} * {{cite book | last = Rothbard | first = Murray N. | authorlink = Murray N. Rothbard | title = The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult | url = http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html | publisher = Liberty | location = Port Townsend, Washington | year = 1987 }} * {{cite book | last = Sures | first = Mary Ann | authorlink = Mary Ann Sures | coauthors = [[Charles Sures]] | title = Facets of Ayn Rand | publisher = Ayn Rand Institute Press | location = Los Angeles | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-9625336-5-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Sciabarra | first = Chris Matthew | authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra | title = Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical | location = University Park, Pennsylvania | publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0-271-01440-7 }} * {{cite journal | last = Sciabarra | first = Chris Matthew | authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra | title = The Rand Transcript | url = http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/randt2.htm | journal = The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | year = 1999 | pages = 1–26 }} * {{cite journal | last = Shermer | first = Michael | authorlink = Michael Shermer | url = http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml | title = The Unlikeliest Cult In History | journal = Skeptic | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | year = 1993 | pages = 74–81 }} * {{cite book | author = [[William Thomas|Thomas, William]] (editor) | title = The Literary Art of Ayn Rand | location = Poughkeepsie, New York | publisher = The Objectivist Center | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 1-577240-70-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Tuccile | first = Jerome | authorlink = Jerome Tuccille | title = It Usually Begins with Ayn Rand | location = New York | publisher = Fox & Wilkes | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0930073258 }} * {{cite book | last = Valliant | first = James S. | authorlink = James S. Valliant | title = The Passion of Ayn Rand's Critics | location = Dallas | publisher = Durban House | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 1-930654-67-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Walker | first = Jeff | authorlink = Jeff Walker | title = The Ayn Rand Cult | location = Chicago | publisher = Open Court | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-8126-9390-6 }} </div> ==External links== {{Philosophy portal}} {{sisterlinks|Ayn Rand}} '''General information''' * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html Ayn Rand FAQ] * [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_ayn_rand_faq_index2 Frequently Asked Questions on Ayn Rand] * [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/rand.htm "Ayn Rand" entry from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] '''Organizations promoting Ayn Rand's philosophy''' * [http://www.aynrand.org/ The Ayn Rand Institute] * [http://www.ariwatch.com/ ARI Watch] &mdash; Argues that some positions of the Ayn Rand Institute differ from those of Ayn Rand. <!-- Note that this link is routinely removed as an act of vandalism. It will be routinely reverted, until the vandals give up. If you disagree, take it to Talk. --> * [http://www.objectivistcenter.org/ The Objectivist Center] * [http://www.capitalismcenter.org/ The Center for the Advancement of Capitalism] '''Articles''' * [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n23/turn03_.html ''As Astonishing as Elvis'' by Jenny Turner] &mdash; Essay review of ''Ayn Rand'' by Jeff Britting * [http://www.starshipaurora.com/aynrand100.html Ayn Rand 100 Tribute] &mdash; includes reference to a tribute album, "Concerto of Deliverance", inspired by Rand's words describing such music. * [http://chronicle.com/colloquy/99/rand/background.htm ''Ayn Rand Has Finally Caught the Attention of Scholars''] by Jeff Sharlet * [http://www.jeffcomp.com/faq/index.html FAQ - What's REALLY Wrong With Objectivism?] * [http://www.mclemee.com/id39.html ''The Heirs of Ayn Rand'' by Scott McLemee] &mdash; An article published in [[Lingua Franca]] which covers the arc of her publishing career, while alive and posthomous, as well as the continuing scholarship. * [http://www.americanwriters.org/writers/rand.asp Rand featured on C-Span's "American Writers"] &mdash; RealVideo discussions on Rand's writing '''Articles critical of Ayn Rand''' * [http://world.std.com/~mhuben/critobj.html Criticisms of Objectivism (or Ayn Rand)] &mdash; from of the Critiques of Libertarianism site * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/critics/ Criticisms of Objectivism] &mdash; from the Objectivism Reference Center site * [http://www.johannhari.com/archive/article.php?id=756 "Don't give to tsunami victims - the message of the American right's philosopher-queen"] &mdash; A critical profile from the London Independent * [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html ''The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult'' by Murray Rothbard] &mdash; written in 1972, this was the first piece of Rand revisionism from the [[libertarian]] standpoint. * [http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml "The Unlikeliest Cult in History" by Michael Shermer] {{see also|Bibliography of work on Objectivism}} '''Rand's associates''' * [http://www.barbarabranden.com/ Barbara Branden's website] * [http://www.nathanielbranden.com/ Nathaniel Branden's website] * [http://www.leonardpeikoff.com/ Leonard Peikoff's website] '''Online groups and blogs''' * [http://www.theatlasphere.com/ The Atlasphere] &mdash; For admirers of Rand's novels, includes member directory, dating service, columns, and news * [http://www.theaynrandforum.com The Ayn Rand Forum] &mdash; Online forum for discussion of Ayn Rand and Objectivism. * [http://community.livejournal.com/aynrandforum Ayn Rand LiveJournal Community] &mdash; A large LiveJournal Community for Ayn Rand. * [http://www.capmag.com/shownews.asp Dollars & Crosses] &mdash; Commentary from a pro-capitalist perspective. * [http://www.DrHurd.com/ Dr. Michael J. Hurd, psychologist] &mdash; The Daily Dose of Reason: psychology, life coaching and comments on cultural/political topics from an Objectivist perspective &mdash; also, The Living Resources Newsletter and Dr. Hurd's publications * [http://forums.4aynrandfans.com The Forum for Ayn Rand Fans] * [http://www.hblist.com Harry Binswanger List] &mdash; E-mail-based discussion group * [http://www.aynrandstudies.com The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies] &mdash; Contains abstracts of articles, author bios, links to several articles, and submission guidelines. * [http://www.objectivism.net Objectivism.net] &mdash; Ayn Rand on CD-ROM, and links * [http://www.objectivismonline.net/ ObjectivismOnline.Net] &mdash; Contains [http://forum.objectivismonline.net/ forums], blogs, essays, chat room, and a [http://wiki.objectivismonline.net wiki on Objectivism] * [http://www.objectivistblogs.com Objectivist Blogs] &mdash; A list of Rand-influenced bloggers * [http://randex.org/ Randex] &mdash; Index of online media references to Ayn Rand and Objectivism * [http://www.solopassion.com Sense of Life Objectivists] &mdash; Online columns and discussion, by and for Objectivists - hosted by Lindsay Perigo * [http://www.TIADaily.com/ TIA Daily] &mdash; Daily news and commentary from the Objectivist perspective by e-mail '''Imagery''' * [http://www.yoyita.com/Ayn_Rand.html Portrait of Ayn Rand] '''Rand's writing and speeches''' * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/anthem/complete.html ''Anthem''] &mdash; The complete text of the novel, which has fallen into the public domain * [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-atlas-shrugged.asp ''Atlas Shrugged'' ] &mdash; Book outline * [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-fountainhead.asp ''The Fountainhead''] &mdash; Book outline * [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-we-the-living.asp ''We The Living''] &mdash; Book outline * [http://www.tracyfineart.com/usmc/philosophy_who_needs_it.htm "Philosophy: Who Needs It?"] &mdash; Address To The Graduating Class Of The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York - March 6, 1974 * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html Rand's HUAC testimony] &mdash; Transcript * [http://www.libertyhaven.org/bookstore/B00004LC7UAMUS169912.shtml ''We the Living''] &mdash; Video outline * {{gutenberg author| id=Ayn+Rand | name=Ayn Rand}} * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/faidfrquery/r?faid/faidfr:@field(SOURCE+@band(rand+ayn)) Rand's papers at The Library of Congress] [[Category:1905 births|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:1982 deaths|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:20th century philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:American literary critics|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:American novelists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:American philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Anti-communism|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Anti-Vietnam War|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Aristotelian philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Atheists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Atheist thinkers and activists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Cat lovers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Epistemologists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Jewish American writers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Minarchists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Moral philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Natives of Saint Petersburg|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Novelists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Objectivists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Political philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Political writers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Women writers|Rand, Ayn]] [[cs:Ayn Randová]] [[da:Ayn Rand]] [[de:Ayn Rand]] [[es:Ayn Rand]] [[fi:Ayn Rand]] [[fr:Ayn Rand]] [[he:איין ראנד]] [[hu:Ayn Rand]] [[is:Ayn Rand]] [[ja:アイン・ランド]] [[nl:Ayn Rand]] [[nn:Ayn Rand]] [[no:Ayn Rand]] [[pl:Ayn Rand]] [[pt:Ayn Rand]] [[sk:Ayn Randová]] [[sv:Ayn Rand]] [[zh:艾茵·兰德]] Alain Connes 340 41123331 2006-02-25T04:54:20Z 221.226.98.5 '''Alain Connes''' (born [[April 1]], [[1947]]) is a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]], currently Professor at the [[College de France]] ([[Paris]], [[France]]), [[IHES]] ([[Bures-sur-Yvette]], [[France]]) and [[Vanderbilt University]] ([[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]). He is a specialist of [[Von Neumann algebra]]s and succeeded in completing the classification of [[factor]]s of these objects. Although his work in physics was not very convincing he tried to connect the planckian scales with what he called a "2-brane" Universe, model which was largely rejected by string theorists so far. The remarkable links between this subject, the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in [[theoretical physics]], [[particle physics]], and [[differential geometry]], made him emphasize [[Noncommutative geometry]] (which is also the title of his major book to date). He was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in [[1982]], the [[Crafoord Prize]] in [[2001]] and the gold medal of the [[CNRS]] in 2004. ==See also== * [[cyclic homology]] * [[factor (functional analysis)]] * [[Higgs boson]] * [[C*-algebra]] * [[M Theory]] * [[Groupoid]] * [[Jean Louis Loday]] ==External links== * [http://www.alainconnes.org/ Alain Connes Official Web Site] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Connes}} {{Fields medalists}} [[Category:1947 births|Connes, Alain]] [[Category:Living people|Connes, Alain]] [[Category:French mathematicians|Connes, Alain]] [[Category:Alumni of the École Normale Supérieure|Connes, Alain]] [[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Connes, Alain]] [[ar:ألان كن]] [[de:Alain Connes]] [[es:Alain Connes]] [[fr:Alain Connes]] [[ja:アラン・コンヌ]] [[ko:알랭 콘느]] [[pl:Alain Connes]] [[zh:阿兰·孔]] Applied Statistics 341 15899076 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Applied statistics]] Arithmetic Mean 343 15899077 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Arithmetic mean]] Allan Dwan 344 40346482 2006-02-19T23:33:42Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 '''Allan Dwan''' ([[April 3]], [[1885 in film|1885]] &ndash; [[December 21]], [[1981 in film|1981]]) was a pioneering [[Canada|Canadian]]-born American [[film|motion picture]] [[film director|director]], producer and screenwriter. Born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan''' in [[Toronto, Ontario]], [[Canada]], his family moved to the [[United States]] when he was eleven years of age. At university, he trained as an engineer and began working for a lighting company in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. However, he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when [[Essanay Studios]] offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] movie makers began to spend winters in [[California]] where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round and, in [[1911]], Dwan began working part time in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]. While still in New York, in [[1917 in film|1917]] he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the [[Motion Picture Directors Association]]. Allan Dwan became a true innovator in the motion picture industry. After making a series of westerns and comedies, he directed fellow Canadian, [[Mary Pickford]] in several very successful movies as well as her husband, [[Douglas Fairbanks]], notably in the acclaimed [[1922 in film|1922]] ''[[Robin Hood]]''. Following the introduction of the [[sound film|talkies]], in [[1937 in film|1937]] he directed child-star [[Shirley Temple]] in ''[[Heidi]]'' and ''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' the following year. Over his long and successful career spanning over fifty years, he directed over 400 motion pictures, many of them highly acclaimed, such as the [[1949 in film|1949]] box office smash, ''[[The Sands of Iwo Jima]]''. His last movie was in [[1961]]. Dwan is one of the directors who spanned the silent to sound era. Most of the silent movies he directed are lost due to poor preservation. Little historical writing has been devoted to Dwan, but some believe that he will be the last "discovered" great director from the [[Classic Hollywood Era]]. He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the [[San Fernando Mission Cemetery]], [[Mission Hills, California]]. Allan Dwan has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]. ==Selected films== As director: *''[[Manhattan Madness]]'' (1916) *''[[Fairbanks Fine Arts]]'' (1916) *''[[Fairbanks Fragments]]'' (1916-1918) also screenwriter *''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]'' (1922) *''The Iron Mask'' (1929) *''[[Heidi]]'' (1937) *''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm/The Little Colonel]]'' (1938) *''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' (1938) *''[[The Three Musketeers (film)|The Three Musketeers]]'' (1939) *''The Gorilla'' (1939) *''[[Young People]]'' (1940) *''[[Look Who's Laughing]]'' (1941) also producer *''[[Friendly Enemies]]'' (1942) *''Around the World'' (1943) also producer *''[[Up in Mabel's Room]]'' (1944) *''[[Abroad With Two Yanks]]'' (1944) *''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' (1945) also screenwriter *''[[Brewster's Millions]]'' (1945) *''Driftwood'' (1947) *''Calendar Girl'' (1947) *''[[Northwest Outpost]]'' (1947) also associate producer *''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]'' (1949) *''[[Montana Belle]]'' (1952) *''[[Silver Lode (1954 film)|Silver Lode]]'' (1954) *''[[Passion (1954 movie)|Passion]]'' (1954) *''[[Cattle Queen of Montana]]'' (1954) *''[[Tennessee's Partner]]'' (1955) *''[[Pearl of the South Pacific]]'' (1955) *''[[Escape to Burma]]'' (1955) *''[[Slightly Scarlet]]'' (1956) *''[[The Restless Breed]]'' (1957) *''[[Enchanted Island]]'' (1958) See also: [[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]] ==External links== *{{imdb name|id=0245385|name= Allan Dwan}} [[Category:1885 births|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:1981 deaths|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:American film directors|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:American film producers|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:American screenwriters|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Ontario writers|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Torontonians|Dwan, Allan]] [[de:Allan Dwan]] Algeria/Background 345 15899079 2004-03-15T17:30:39Z Anthony DiPierro 34793 #REDIRECT [[History of Algeria]] Algeria/Geography 346 15899080 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.230.147 * #REDIRECT [[Geography of Algeria]] Algeria/People 347 15899081 2002-08-20T15:34:45Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Algeria]] Algeria/Government 348 15899082 2002-08-22T22:05:03Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 more removals #REDIRECT [[Politics of Algeria]] Economy of Algeria 349 40484200 2006-02-20T22:28:44Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 {{update}} {{cleanup-date|December 2005}} {{Economy of Algeria table}} In the '''economy of Algeria''' the [[hydrocarbons]] sector is the backbone, accounting for roughly 52% of budget revenues, 25% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], and over 95% of export earnings. [[Algeria]] has the fifth-largest reserves of [[natural gas]] in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the Arab world stalled in [[1992]] as the country became embroiled in political turmoil. Burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers concluded a one-year standby arrangement with the [[International Monetary Fund]] in April [[1994]] and the following year signed onto a three-year extended fund facility which ended [[30 April]], [[1998]]. Some progress on economic reform, [[Paris Club]] [[debt rescheduling]]s in [[1995]] and [[1996]], and oil and gas sector expansion contributed to a recovery in growth since 1995, reducing inflation to approximately 1% and narrowing the budget deficit. Algeria's economy has grown at about 4% annually since [[1999]]. The country's foreign debt has fallen from a high of $28 billion in [[1999]] to its current level of $24 billion. The spike in oil prices in [[1999]]-[[2000]] and the government's tight fiscal policy, as well as a large increase in the trade surplus and the near tripling of foreign exchange reserves has helped the country's finances. However, an ongoing drought, the after effects of the [[November 10]], [[2001]] floods and an uncertain oil market make prospects for [[2002]]-[[2003|03]] more problematic. The government pledges to continue its efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector. However, it has thus far had little success in reducing high unemployment, officially estimated at 30% and improving living standards. [[President Bouteflika]] has announced sweeping economic reforms, which, if implemented, will significantly restructure the economy. Still, the economy remains heavily dependent on volatile oil and gas revenues. The government has continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector, but has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. Other priority areas include banking reform, improving the investment environment, and reducing government bureaucracy. The government has announced plans to sell off state enterprises: sales of a national cement factory and steel plant have been completed and other industries are up for offer. In 2001, Algeria signed an Association Agreement with the [[European Union]]; it has started accession negotiations for entry into the [[World Trade Organization]]. ===[[Agriculture]]=== Since Roman times Algeria has been noted for the fertility of its soil. About a quarter of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits. More than 7,500,000 acres (30,000 km&sup2;) are devoted to the cultivation of [[cereal grain]]s. The Tell is the grain-growing land. During the time of [[France|French]] rule its productivity was increased substantially by the sinking of [[Artesian aquifer|artesian well]]s in districts which only required water to make them fertile. Of the crops raised, [[wheat]], [[barley]] and [[oat]]s are the principal cereals. A great variety of [[vegetable]]s and of [[fruit]]s, especially [[citrus]] products, is exported. A considerable amount of [[cotton]] was grown at the time of the [[United States]]' [[American Civil War|Civil War]], but the industry declined afterwards. In the early years of the 20th century efforts to extend the cultivation of the plant were renewed. A small amount of [[cotton]] is also grown in the southern oases. Large quantities of [[crin vegetal]] (vegetable horse-hair) an excellent fibre, are made from the leaves of the dwarf palm. The [[olive]] (both for its fruit and [[Petroleum]]) and [[tobacco]] are cultivated with great success. Algeria also exports [[fig]]s, [[date (fruit)|date]]s, [[esparto]] grass, and [[cork (material)|cork]]. ====Wine Production==== Throughout Algeria the soil favours the growth of vines. The country, in the words of an expert sent to report on the subject by the French government, :"can produce an infinite variety of wines suitable to every constitution and to every caprice of taste." The growing of vines was undertaken early by the colonists, but it was not until vineyards in [[France]] were attacked by [[phylloxera]] that the export of [[wine]] from Algeria became significant. In [[1883]], despite precautionary measures, Algerian [[vineyard]]s were also attacked but in the meantime the quality of their wines had been proved. In 1850 less than 2000 acres (8 km&sup2;) were devoted to the grape, but in 1878 this had increased to over 42,000 acres (170 km&sup2;), which yielded 7,436,000 gallons (28,000 m&sup3;) of wine. Despite bad seasons and ravages of insects, cultivation extended, and in 1895 the vineyards covered 300,000 acres (1,200 km&sup2;), the produce being 88,000,000 gallons (333,000 m&sup3;). The area of cultivation in 1905 exceeded 400,000 acres (1,600 km&sup2;), and in that year the amount of wine produced was 157,000,000 gallons (594,000 m&sup3;). By that time the limits of profitable production had been reached in many parts of the country. Practically the only foreign market for Algerian wine is France, which in 1905 imported about 110,000,000 gallons (416,000 m&sup3;). ===Fishing=== Fishing is a flourishing but minor industry. Fish caught are principally [[sardine]]s, [[bonito]], [[smelt]] and [[sprat]]s. Fresh fish are exported to [[France]], dried and preserved fish to [[Spain]] and [[Italy]]. Coral [[fishery|fisheries]] are found along the coast from [[Bona]] to [[Tunis]]. ===Minerals=== Algeria is rich in minerals; the country has many [[iron]], [[lead]] and [[zinc]], [[copper]], [[calamine]], [[antimony]] and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] mines. The most productive are those of iron and zinc. Lignite is found in Algiers; immense [[phosphate]] beds were discovered near [[Tebessa]] in 1891, yielding 313,500 tons in 1905. Phosphate beds are also worked near [[Setif]], [[Guelma]] and [[Ain Beida]]. There are more than 300 quarries which produce, amongst other stones, [[onyx]] and beautiful white and red [[marble]]s. Algerian onyx from Ain Tekbalet was used by the Romans, and many ancient quarries have been found near [[Kleber]], some being certainly those from which the long-lost Numidian marbles were taken. [[Salt]] is collected on the margins of the chotts. ==Foreign trade== Under French administration the commerce of Algeria developed greatly: the total imports and exports at the time of the French occupation (1830) did not exceed £ 175,000. In 1850 the figures had reached £ 5,000,000; in 1868, £ 12,000,000; in 1880, £ 17,000,000; and in 1890, £ 20,000,000. From this point progress was slower and the figures varied considerably year by year. In 1905 the total value of the foreign trade was £ 24,500,000. About five-sixths of the trade is with or via France, into which country several Algerian goods have been admitted duty-free since 1851, and all since 1867. French goods, except [[sugar]], have been admitted into Algeria without payment of duty since 1835. After the increase, in 1892, of the French minimum tariff, which applied to Algeria also, foreign trade greatly diminished. By far Algeria's most significant exports, financially, are [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]]. The reserves are mostly in the Eastern [[Sahara]]; the Algerian government curbed the exports in the 1980s to slow depletion; exports increased again somewhat in the [[1990|1990s]]. Other significant exports are [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[ox]]en, and [[horse]]s; animal products, such as [[wool]] and skins; [[wine]], cereals ([[rye]], [[barley]], [[oat]]s), [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s (chiefly [[fig]]s and [[grape]]s for the table) and [[seed]]s, [[esparto]] grass, oils and vegetable extracts (chiefly [[olive oil]]), [[iron]] ore, [[zinc]], natural [[phosphate]]s, [[timber]], [[Cork (material)|cork]], [[crin vegetal]] and [[tobacco]]. The import of [[wool]] exceeds the export. [[Sugar]], [[coffee]], machinery, metal work of all kinds, clothing and pottery are largely imported. Of these by far the greater part comes from France. The [[United Kingdom|British]] imports consist chiefly of [[coal]], cotton fabrics and machinery. ===Exports=== Algeria trades most extensively with France and [[Italy]], in terms of both imports and exports, but also trades with the United States and [[Spain]]. ===Statistics=== ==Reference== *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html CIA World Factbook] :''See also :'' [[Algeria]] {{OPEC}} [[Category:Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|Alegeria]] [[Category:Economies by country|Algeria]] [[Category:Economy of Algeria| ]] [[Category:African Union member economies|Algeria]] [[fr:Économie de l'Algérie]] [[pt:Economia da Argélia]] [[ru:Экономика Алжира]] Algeria/Communications 350 15899084 2002-06-16T16:23:09Z Danny 584 * #REDIRECT [[Communications in Algeria]] Algeria/Transportation 351 39213634 2006-02-11T15:33:09Z Eskimbot 477460 Robot: Fixing double redirect #REDIRECT [[Transport in Algeria]] Algeria/Military 352 15899086 2005-03-27T03:27:25Z Srs 209316 #REDIRECT [[Military of Algeria]] Algeria/Transnational Issues 353 15899087 2002-06-16T16:27:14Z Danny 584 * #REDIRECT [[Transnational issues of Algeria]] Algeria/Archaeology 356 15899089 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.230.147 * #REDIRECT [[Archeology of Algeria]] Algeria/History 357 15899090 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[History of Algeria]] :''See also :'' [[Algeria]] Algeria 358 edit=sysop:move=sysop 40426750 2006-02-20T13:34:27Z Splash 285145 do not use semi in an editorial dispute, even if one side is anons, per [[WP:SEMI]] {{protected}} {{Infobox_Country| native_name = الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية<br>Al-Jumhūrīyah al-Jazā’irīyah<br>ad-Dīmuqrāţīyah ash-Sha’bīyah| common_name = Algeria | image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg | image_coat = Algeria coa.png | image_map = LocationAlgeria.png | national_motto = (translation): The Revolution by the people and for the people | national_anthem = ''[[Kassaman|Kassaman <small>(Qasaman Bin-Nāzilāt Il-Māḥiqāt)]]''<br>(<small>[[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''[[Kassaman|We Swear By The Lightning That Destroys]]'') | official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]] | capital = [[Algiers]] | latd=36|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=3|longm=13|longEW=E| largest_city = [[Algiers]] | government_type= Democratic [[Republic]] | leader_titles = [[President of Algeria|President]]<br>[[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] | leader_names = [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]<br>[[Ahmed Ouyahia]] | area_rank = 11th | area_magnitude = 1 E12 | area = 2,381,740 | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 32,531,853 | population_estimate_year = 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 36th | population_census= | population_census_year= | population_density = 13 | population_density_rank= 168th| GDP_PPP_year= 2004 | GDP_PPP = $217,224,000,000 | GDP_PPP_rank = 38th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,799 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 85th | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.722 | HDI_rank = 103rd | HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]| established_events = Declared | established_dates = From [[France]]<br>[[July 5]], [[1962]] | currency = [[Algerian dinar]] | currency_code = DA | time_zone= [[Central European Time|CET]] | utc_offset= +1 | time_zone_DST= [[Central European Time|CET]] | utc_offset_DST= +1 does not observe | cctld= [[.dz]] | calling_code = 213 | footnotes = }} The '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية''') , or '''Algeria''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''الجزائر'''), is a presidential state in [[north Africa]], and the second largest country on the [[Africa]]n continent, [[Sudan]] being the largest. It is bordered by [[Tunisia]] in the northeast, [[Libya]] in the east, [[Niger]] in the southeast, [[Mali]] and [[Mauritania]] in the southwest, and [[Morocco]] as well as a few kilometers of its annexed territory, [[Western Sahara]], in the west. [[Constitution of Algeria|Constitutionally]], it is defined as an [[Islam]]ic, [[Arab]], and [[Amazigh]] (Berber) country. The name Algeria is derived from the name of the city of [[Algiers]], from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''al-jazā’ir'', which translates as ''the islands'', referring to the four islands which lay off that city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525. ==History== {{main|History of Algeria}} Algeria has been inhabited by [[Berber]]s (or Amazigh) since at least [[10,000 BC]]. From [[1000 BC]] on, the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] became an influence on them, establishing settlements along the coast. Berber kingdoms began to emerge, most notably [[Numidia]], and seized the opportunity offered by the Punic Wars to become independent of Carthage, only to be taken over soon after by the [[Roman Republic]] in 200 BC. As the western [[Roman Empire]] collapsed, the Berbers became independent again in much of the area, while the [[Vandals]] took over parts until later expelled by the generals of the [[Byzantine Emperor]], [[Justinian I]]. The [[Byzantine Empire]] then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country until the coming of the [[Arab]]s in the [[8th century]]. [[Image:Roman Arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria 04966r.jpg|thumb|left|Roman arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria]] After some decades of fierce resistance under leaders such as [[Kusayla]] and [[Kahina]], the Berbers adopted [[Islam]] ''en masse'', but almost immediately expelled the [[Caliphate]] from Algeria, establishing an [[Ibadi]] state under the [[Rustamid]]s. Having converted the [[Kutama]] of [[Kabylie]] to its cause, the [[Shia]] [[Fatimid]]s overthrew the Rustamids, and conquered Egypt. They left Algeria and Tunisia to their [[Zirid]] vassals; when the latter rebelled and adopted [[Sunni]]sm, they sent in a populous [[Arab]] tribe, the [[Banu Hilal]], to weaken them, thus incidentally initiating the [[Arabization]] of the countryside. The [[Almoravid]]s and [[Almohad]]s, Berber dynasties from the west founded by religious reformers, brought a period of relative peace and development; however, with the Almohads' collapse, Algeria became a battleground for their three [[successor state]]s, the Algerian [[Zayyanid]]s, Tunisian [[Hafsid]]s, and Moroccan [[Merinid]]s. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, [[Spain]] started attacking and taking over many coastal cities, prompting some to seek help from the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Algeria was brought into the Ottoman Empire by [[Khair ad Din|Khair ad-Din]] and his brother [[Aruj]], who established Algeria's modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the [[Privateer|corsairs]]; their privateering peaked in Algiers in the 1600s. Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the [[First Barbary War|First]] and [[Second Barbary War]] with the [[United States]]. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the [[France|French]] invaded Algiers in 1830; however, intense resistance from such personalities as [[Emir Abdelkader]], [[Ahmed Bey]] and [[Lalla Fatma N'Soumer|Fatma N'Soumer]] made for a slow conquest of Algeria, not technically completed until the early 1900s when the last [[Tuareg]] were conquered. [[Image:Constantine Algerien 002.jpg|thumb|left|Constantine, Algeria 1840]] Meanwhile, however, the French suppressed slavery and made Algeria an integral part of France, a status that would end only with the collapse of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]]. Tens of thousands of settlers from France, Italy, Spain, and Malta moved in to farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupy the most prized parts of Algeria's cities, benefiting from the French government's confiscation of communally held land. People of European descent in Algeria (the so-called ''[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]''), as well as the native Algerian Jews, were full French citizens starting from the end of the 19th century; by contrast, the vast majority of Muslim Algerians (even veterans of the French army) remained outside of French law, possessing neither French citizenship nor the right to vote. Algeria's social fabric was stretched to breaking point during this period: literacy dropped massively, while land confiscation uprooted much of the population. In 1954, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN) launched the [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[Algerian War of Independence]]; after nearly a decade of urban and rural warfare, they succeeded in pushing France out in 1962. Most of the 1,025,000 ''[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]'', as well as 91,000 ''[[harki]]s'' (pro-French Muslim Algerians serving in the French Army), together forming about 10% of the population of Algeria in 1962, fled Algeria for France in just a few months in the middle of that year. [[Image:TheBattleofAlgiers.png|thumb|right|''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' is a movie about the [[Algerian War of Independence]].]] Algeria's first president, the FLN leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]], was overthrown by his former ally and defense minister, [[Houari Boumédiènne]] in 1965. Under Ben Bella the government had already become increasingly socialist and dictatorial, and this trend continued throughout Boumedienne's government; however, Boumedienne relied much more heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal party to a merely symbolic role. Agriculture was collectivised, and a massive industrialization drive launched. Oil extraction facilities were nationalized and this increased the state's wealth, especially after the 1973 oil crisis, but the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, bringing hardship when the price collapsed in the 1980s. In foreign policy Algeria was a member and leader of the 'non-aligned' nations. A dispute with Morocco over the [[Western Sahara]] nearly led to war. Dissent was rarely tolerated, and the state's control over the media and the outlawing of political parties other than the FLN was cemented in the repressive constitution of 1976. Boumédienne died in 1978, but the rule of his successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], was little more open. The state took on a strongly bureaucratic character and corruption was widespread. The modernization drive brought considerable demographic changes to Algeria. Village traditions underwent significant change as urbanization increased, new industries emerged, agriculture was substantially reduced, and education, a rarity in colonial times, was extended nationwide, raising the literacy rate from less than 10% to over 60%. Improvements in healthcare led to a dramatic increase in the birthrate (7-8 children per mother) which had two consequences: a very youthful population, and a housing crisis. The new generation struggled to relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest movements developed: left-wingers, including Berber identity movements, and Islamic 'intégristes'. Both protested against one-party rule but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets during the 1980s. Mass protests from both camps in autumn 1988 forced Benjedid to concede the end of one-party rule, and elections were announced for 1991. In December 1991, the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] won the [[Algerian National Assembly elections, 1991|first round]] of the country's first multiparty elections. The military then canceled the second round, forced then-president Bendjedid to resign, and banned the Islamic Salvation Front. The ensuing conflict engulfed Algeria in the violent [[Algerian Civil War]]. More than 100,000 people were killed, often in unprovoked massacres of civilians. The question of who was responsible for these massacres remains controversial among academic observers; many were claimed by the [[Armed Islamic Group]]. After 1998, the war waned, and by 2002 the main guerrilla groups had either been destroyed or surrendered, taking advantage of an amnesty program, though sporadic fighting continued in some areas. Elections resumed in 1995, and in 1999, after a series of short-term leaders representing the military, [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]], the current president, was elected. The issue of Berber language and identity increased in significance, particularly after the extensive [[Kabyle]] protests of 2001 and the near-total boycott of local elections in [[Kabylie]]; the government responded with concessions including naming of [[Tamazight]] (Berber) as a national language and teaching it in schools. ==Politics== {{main|Politics of Algeria}} The head of state is the [[President of Algeria|President of the republic]], who is elected to a 5-year term, renewable once. Algeria has [[universal suffrage]]. The President is the head of the Council of Ministers and of the High Security Council. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government. The Prime Minister appoints the Council of Ministers. The Algerian [[parliament]] is bicameral, consisting of a lower chamber, the National People's Assembly (APN), with 380 members and an upper chamber, the Council of Nation, with 144 members. The APN is elected every 5 years. Throughout the 1960's, Algeria supported many independence movements in sub-Saharan Africa, and was a leader in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. While it shares much of its history and cultural heritage with neighbouring [[Morocco]], the two countries have had somewhat hostile relations with each other since Algeria's independence. This is due to two reasons: Morocco's [[Greater Morocco|claim to portions of western Algeria]] (which led to the [[Sand war]] in 1963), and Algeria's support for the [[Polisario]], an armed group of [[Sahrawi]] [[refugee]]s seeking [[independence]] for the Moroccan-ruled [[Western Sahara]], which it hosts within its borders in the city of [[Tindouf]]. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco, as well as issues relating to the [[Algerian Civil War]], have put great obstacles in the way of tightening the [[Maghreb Arab Union]], nominally established in 1989 but with little practical weight, with its coastal neighbors. ==Provinces== {{main|Provinces of Algeria}} Algeria is divided into 48 ''[[Wilayah|wilayas]]'' ([[provinces]]):- {| |- | *<small>1</small> [[Adrar (Algerian province)|Adrar]] *<small>2</small> [[Aïn Defla]] *<small>3</small> [[Aïn Témouchent]] *<small>4</small> [[Algiers|Alger]] *<small>5</small> [[Annaba (province)|Annaba]] *<small>6</small> [[Batna (province)|Batna]] *<small>7</small> [[Béchar]] *<small>8</small> [[Béjaïa (province)|Béjaïa]] *<small>9</small> [[Biskra (province)|Biskra]] *<small>10</small> [[Blida]] *<small>11</small> [[Bordj Bou Arréridj (province)|Bordj Bou Arréridj]] *<small>12</small> [[Bouira]] *<small>13</small> [[Boumerdès]] *<small>14</small> [[Chlef]] *<small>15</small> [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] *<small>16</small> [[Djelfa (province)|Djelfa]] *<small>17</small> [[El Bayadh]] | *<small>18</small> [[El Oued (province)|El Oued]] *<small>19</small> [[El Tarf]] *<small>20</small> [[Ghardaïa]] *<small>21</small> [[Guelma]] *<small>22</small> [[Illizi]] *<small>23</small> [[Jijel]] *<small>24</small> [[Khenchela]] *<small>25</small> [[Laghouat]] *<small>26</small> [[Mila]] *<small>27</small> [[Mostaganem (province)|Mostaganem]] *<small>28</small> [[Medea]] *<small>29</small> [[Muaskar]] *<small>30</small> [[M'Sila]] *<small>31</small> [[Naama]] *<small>32</small> [[Oran]] *<small>33</small> [[Ouargla]] | *<small>34</small> [[Oum el-Bouaghi]] *<small>35</small> [[Relizane]] *<small>36</small> [[Saida (province)|Saida]] *<small>37</small> [[Sétif]] *<small>38</small> [[Sidi Bel Abbes]] *<small>39</small> [[Skikda]] *<small>40</small> [[Souk Ahras]] *<small>41</small> [[Tamanrasset]] *<small>42</small> [[Tébessa]] *<small>43</small> [[Tiaret]] *<small>44</small> [[Tindouf Province|Tindouf]] *<small>45</small> [[Tipaza]] *<small>46</small> [[Tissemsilt]] *<small>47</small> [[Tizi Ouzou]] *<small>48</small> [[Tlemcen]] | |[[Image:Algeria provinces.png|right|250px|Map of the provinces of [[Algeria]] in alphabetical order.]] |} ==Geography== {{main|Geography of Algeria}} [[Image:Algeria map.png|220px|right|Map of Algeria with cities]] [[Image:Hoggar3.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Ahaggar Mountains|Hoggar]] Mountains]] Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are few good harbours. The area just south of the coast, known as the [[Tell]], is fertile. Further south is the [[Atlas mountains|Atlas mountain]] range and the [[Sahara]] desert. [[Algiers]], [[Oran]] and [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] are the main cities. Algeria's [[climate]] is arid and hot, although the coastal climate is mild, and the winters in the mountainous areas can be severe. Algeria is prone to [[sirocco]], a hot dust- and sand-laden wind especially common in summer. ''See also'': [[Extreme points of Algeria]] ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Algeria}} [[Image:Unknown origin coin2.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Algerian coins]] The fossil fuels energy sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of [[natural gas]] in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks 14th in [[Petroleum]] reserves. Algeria’s financial and economic indicators improved during the mid-1990s, in part because of policy reforms supported by the IMF and debt rescheduling from the [[Paris Club]]. Algeria’s finances in 2000 and 2001 benefited from an increase in oil prices and the government’s tight fiscal policy, leading to a large increase in the trade surplus, record highs in foreign exchange reserves, and reduction in foreign debt. The government's continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. In 2001, the government signed an Association Treaty with the [[European Union]] that will eventually lower tariffs and increase trade. ==Demographics== [[Image:Algiers coast.jpg|thumb|[[Algiers]] coast]] {{main|Demographics of Algeria}} About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the minority who inhabit the [[Sahara desert]] are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5 million remain [[nomad]]ic or partly nomadic. Ninety-nine percent of the population is classified ethnically as [[Arab]]/[[Berber]], and religiously as [[Muslim]]; other religions are restricted to extremely small groups, mainly of foreigners. Europeans account for less than 1%. Most Algerians are Arab by language and identity, and of mixed Berber-Arab ancestry. The Berbers inhabited Algeria before the arrival of Arab tribes during the expansion of Islam, in the 7th century. The issue of ethnicity and language is sensitive after many years of government marginalization of Berber (or [[Amazigh]], as some prefer) culture. Today, the Arab-Berber issue is often a case of self-identification or identification through language and culture, rather than a racial or ethnic distinction. The 20% or so of the population who self-identify as Berbers, and primarily speak Berber languages (such as [[Tamazight]]), are divided into several ethnic groups, notably [[Kabyle]] (the largest) in the mountainous north-central area, [[Chaoui]] in the eastern [[Atlas Mountains]], [[Mozabite]]s in the [[M'zab]] valley, and [[Tuareg]] in the far south. ==Language== {{main|Languages of Algeria}} The [[official language]] is [[Arabic language|Arabic]], spoken natively in dialectal form ("[[Algerian Arabic|Darja]]") by some 80% of the population; the other 20% or so speak [[Berber]] ([[Tamazight]]), officially a [[national language]]. [[French language|French]] is the most widely studied foreign language (distantly followed by [[English language|English]]), but is very rare as a [[native language]]. Since independence, the government has pursued a policy of linguistic [[Arabization]] of education and bureaucracy, with some success, although many university courses continue to be taught in French. ==Culture== [[Image:Algiers mosque.jpg|thumb|[[Mosque]] in Algiers]] {{main|Culture of Algeria}} Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]] and [[Kateb Yacine]], while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated. Important novelists of the 1980s included [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of Amnesty International, and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views. As early as Roman times, [[Apuleius]], born in [[Mdaourouch]], was native to what would become Algeria. In philosophy and the humanities, [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization]], while [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (about 60 miles from the present day city of [[Annaba]]), and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria. Algerian culture has been strongly influenced by [[Islam in Algeria|Islam]], the main religion. The works of the [[Sanusi]] family in precolonial times, and of Emir [[Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted. The [[Music of Algeria|Algerian musical]] genre best known abroad is [[raï]], a pop-flavored, opinionated take on folk music, featuring international stars such as [[Khaled (musician)|Khaled]] and [[Cheb Mami]]. However, in Algeria itself the older, highly verbal [[chaabi]] style remains more popular, with such stars as [[El Hadj El Anka]] or [[Dahmane El Harrachi]], while the tuneful melodies of [[Kabyle]] music, exemplified by [[Idir]], [[Ait Menguellet]], or [[Lounès Matoub]], have a wide audience. For more classical tastes, [[Andalusian classical music|Andalusi music]], brought from [[Al-Andalus]] by [[Morisco]] refugees, is preserved in many older coastal towns. In painting, [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[M'hemed Issiakhem]] are notable in recent years. == Picture gallery == <gallery> Image:Houbel.JPG|''The Monument of the Martyrs Algiers'' Image:Algernuit.jpg|''Algiers by night'' Image:Finace.jpg|''Minister of the finances'' Image:Makam Echehid.jpg|''Algiers view by air'' Image:Benyen.JPG|''the Forest Bainem in Algeria at (Bouzareah)'' Image:Algierssnow.jpg|''Snow on Algiers'' Image:Church Saintcharlesalgiers.jpg|''The church Saint charles at Algiers'' Image:PE Algerie Sahara 0121.JPG|''Sahara of Algeria'' </gallery> == Miscellaneous topics == * [[Archeology of Algeria]] * [[Communications in Algeria]] * [[Foreign relations of Algeria]] * [[List of Algeria-related topics]] * [[List of cities in Algeria]] * [[List of Algerians]] * [[List of sovereign states]] * [[Military of Algeria]] * [[Transportation in Algeria|Transportation in Algeria]] * ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' movie * [[Algerian War of Independence]] (1954-1962) * [[Algerian Civil War]] (1991-2002) === Directories === *[http://www.pagesjaunes-dz.com/index.php?lang=en Yellow Pages of Algeria] ==External links== {{portal}} {{sisterlinks|Algeria}} '''Government''' *[http://www.el-mouradia.dz El Mouradia] official presidential site (in French and Arabic) *[http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/index.htm National People's Assembly] official parliamentary site *[http://www.algeria-us.org/ The Embassy of Algeria in Washington, DC] '''News''' *[http://allafrica.com/algeria/ allAfrica.com - ''Algeria''] news headline links *[http://www.elkhabar.com/FrEn/?idc=52 El Khabar] *[http://www.north-africa.com/one.htm The North Africa Journal] business news '''Overviews''' * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html CIA World Factbook - ''Algeria''] * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html Library of Congress - Country Study: ''Algeria''] data as of December 1993 * [http://www.exile.ru/2003-February-20/war_nerd.html Algeria: The Psychos Will Inherit the Earth] - an irreverent look at Algeria's military situation '''Tourism''' *{{wikitravel}} '''Other''' * [http://www.algeria-watch.org/francais.htm Algeria Watch] human rights organization critical of widespread torture practiced by the régime (in French) * [http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-institutions_government/algeria_2874.jsp Algeria’s past needs opening, not closing] Analysis on the public referendum held [[29 September]] [[2005]] by Veerle Opgenhaffen and Hanny Megally *[http://algerie.el-annabi.com all City of Algéria] *[http://www.dicodialna.com Algerian-English Online Dictionary] {{Africa}} {{Mediterranean}} [[Category:African Union member states]] [[Category:Algeria| ]] [[Category:Arab League]] [[Category:Peace and Security Council]] [[af:Algerië]] [[am:አልጄሪያ]] [[an:Alcheria]] [[ar:الجزائر]] [[ast:Arxelia]] [[bn:আলজেরিয়া]] [[bs:Alžir]] [[ca:Algèria]] [[cs:Alžírsko]] [[cy:Algeria]] [[da:Algeriet]] [[de:Algerien]] [[el:Αλγερία]] [[eo:Alĝerio]] [[es:Argelia]] [[et:Alžeeria]] [[fa:الجزایر]] [[fi:Algeria]] [[fr:Algérie]] [[gl:Alxeria - الجزائر]] [[ha:Aljeriya]] [[haw:ʻAlekelia]] [[he:אלג'יריה]] [[hi:अल्जीरिया]] [[ht:Aljeri]] [[ia:Algeria]] [[id:Aljazair]] [[io:Aljeria]] [[is:Alsír]] [[it:Algeria]] [[ja:アルジェリア]] [[ko:알제리]] [[kw:Aljeri]] [[la:Algeria]] [[li:Algerieë]] [[lt:Alžyras]] [[lv:Alžīrija]] [[mk:Алжир]] [[ms:Algeria]] [[na:Algeria]] [[nds:Algerien]] [[nl:Algerije]] [[nn:Algerie]] [[no:Algerie]] [[pl:Algieria]] [[pt:Argélia]] [[rm:Algeria]] [[ro:Algeria]] [[ru:Алжир]] [[sa:अल्जीरिया]] [[scn:Algiria]] [[simple:Algeria]] [[sk:Alžírsko]] [[sl:Alžirija]] [[so:Aljeeriya]] [[sq:Algjeria]] [[sr:Алжир]] [[sv:Algeriet]] [[tg:Алҷазоир]] [[th:ประเทศแอลจีเรีย]] [[tl:Algeria]] [[tr:Cezayir]] [[ur:الجزائر]] [[wa:Aldjereye]] [[yi:אַלזשיר]] [[zh:阿尔及利亚]] [[zh-min-nan:Algeria]] Characters in Atlas Shrugged 359 41302556 2006-02-26T11:34:49Z Bchampion 671891 Removed inccorect info about etymology of "mooch" see discussion '''Characters in [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel, [[Atlas Shrugged]].''' {{spoiler}} ==Balph Eubank== Called "the literary leader of the age", despite the fact that he is incapable of writing anything that people actually want to read. What people ''want'' to read, he says, is irrelevant. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to ten thousand copies. He is a member of the ''Looters''. Balph Eubank appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Ben Nealy== A railroad contractor whom ''Dagny Taggart'' hires to replace the track on the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] with [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged#Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]]. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement, and this is manifest in his inability to organize the project and to make decisions. He relies on Dagny and ''Ellis Wyatt'' to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. Ben Nealy appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Bertram Scudder== Editorial writer for the magazine ''The Future''. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on ''Hank Rearden'' called ''The Octopus''. He is also vocal in support of the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Equalization of Opportunity Bill|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]]. Bertram Scudder appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Betty Pope== A wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with ''James Taggart'' that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life. She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. Betty Pope appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 142 and 161. ==Brakeman== An unnamed employee working on the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]] train. ''Dagny Taggart'' hears Brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto. When she asks him what piece it is from, he says it is [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Halley's Fifth Concerto|Halley's Fifth Concerto]]. When Dagny points out that ''Richard Halley'' only wrote four concertos, Brakeman claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece. Later, after Dagny instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]]. It is later discovered that the unknown brakeman is one of the strikers, when Dagny meets him in the valley. Brakeman appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112 and 113. ==Cherryl Brooks== Dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. She is horrible to Dagny until the night before she commits suicide, when she confesses to Dagny that she married Jim, thinking she was marrying Dagny. Like Eddie Willers, Cherryl is one representation of a "good" person who lacks the extraordinary capacities of the primary heroes of the novel. ==Claude Slagenhop== The president of political organization [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Friends of Global Progress]] (which is supported by ''Philip Rearden''), and one of ''Lillian Rearden's'' friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. He is not bothered by the fact that action unguided by ideas is random and pointless. Global Progress is a sponsor of the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]]. Claude Slagenhop appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Cuffy Meigs== A looter who's assigned by Wesley Mouch to keep watch over the workings of ''Taggart Transcontinental,'' and later assumes control over the company after Dagny Taggart leaves. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, he dresses in a military uniform. The "intellectual heir" of Dr. Robert Stadler, Meigs comes to a fitting end at the hands of ''Project X.'' ==Dagny Taggart== The main character in Atlas Shrugged (also the name of her namesake ''Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart''). Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. She is the female hero, the counterpart to John Galt, her journey is the journey of the reader exploring and understanding Galts philosophy. Those in the know understand that she is the one who really runs the railroad. In the course of the novel, she forms romantic liaisons with three men of ability. Francisco, Hank Rearden and John Galt in order. John is the one who, because of the sum-total of his qualities, will become the choice of Dagny. Dagny appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 113, 114, 132, 133, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, and 161. ==Dan Conway== The middle-aged president of the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Phoenix-Durango]] railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] is used to drive his business out of [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Colorado]], he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority. When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be. He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up. Dan Conway appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 145 and 146, and is mentioned in section 148. ==Dick McNamara== A contractor who finished the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|San Sebastian Line]] and who is hired to lay the new [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]] track for the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears. Dick McNamara is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 133 and 141. ==Eddie Willers== Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. He grew up with ''Dagny Taggart''. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]]. He is also secretly in love with Dagny. Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man: someone who does not possess the promethian creative ability of The Strikers, but nevertheless matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. Eddie Willers appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 117, 132, 133, 141, 151, and 152. ==Ellis Wyatt== The head of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Wyatt Oil]]. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Colorado]] by discovering oil there. Of all the disappearances of industrialists in the novel, Wyatt's, involving the fiery destruction of his oil wells, is surely the most dramatic. Ellis Wyatt is mentioned or appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 132, 146, 147, 148, and 152. ==Francisco d'Anconia== One of the central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]]. By all accounts, he is a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]], and a childhood friend and first love of ''Dagny Taggart''. Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business. While still a student at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]], he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market. By the time he was twenty he had made enough to purchase the foundry. He began working for [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|d'Anconia Copper]] as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the New York office. He took over d'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father. When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the ''Strikers'' and began to slowly destroy the d'Anconia empire so the ''Looters'' could not get it. He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover. His full name is Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia. ''According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] ([http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html Who is Francisco D'Anconia?]), d'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself).'' Francisco D'Anconia appears or is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 132, 141, 144, 151, and 152 - this last section includes a detailed history of his life. ==Hank Rearden== One of the central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]]. He is the founder of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Steel]] and the inventor of [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]]. He lives in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] with his wife ''Lillian'', his brother ''Philip'', and an elderly woman known only as ''Rearden's Mother'', all of whom he supports. [[Gwen Ives]] is his secretary. The character of Hank Rearden has two important roles to play in the novel. First, he is in the same position as the reader in that he is aware that there is something wrong with the world but is not sure what it is. Rearden is guided toward an understanding of the solution through his friendship with ''Francisco d'Anconia'', who does know the secret, and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in [[Atlas Shrugged/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]]. Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|theory of sex]]. ''Lillian Rearden'' cannot appreciate Hank Rearden's virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex. ''Dagny Taggart'' clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire. Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values. Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory. Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121, 132, 147, and 161, and is mentioned in sections 114 and 131. ==Hugh Akston== Identified as "One of the last great advocates of reason." He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]], where he taught ''Francisco d'Anconia'', ''John Galt'', and ''Ragnar Danneskjöld''. He was, along with ''Robert Stadler'', a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. Hugh Akston is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==James Taggart== The President of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]] and a leader of the ''Looters''. Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own. He relies on his sister ''Dagny Taggart'' to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. As the novel progresses, the moral philosophy of the Looters is revealed: it is a code of [[nihilism]]. The goal of this code is to not exist, to become a zero. Taggart struggles to remain unaware that this is his goal. He maintains his pretence that he wants to live, and becomes horrified whenever his mind starts to grasp the truth about himself. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to destroy those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. James Taggart appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131, 132, 143, 144, 152 and 161, and is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 146 and 148. ==John Galt== *The question "[[Who is John Galt?]]" is asked repeatedly throughout [[Atlas Shrugged]]. Late into the book we learn that '''John Galt''' is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the ''Strikers''. He is also the same character as the '''Mystery Worker'''. The son of an [[Ohio]] garage mechanic, Galt left home at age 12 and began college at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16. There he befriended [[#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[#Ragnar Danneskjöld|Ragnar Danneskjöld]], all three of whom double-majored in [[physics]] and [[philosophy]]. They were the cherished students of the brilliant scientist [[#Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] and the brilliant philosopher [[#Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]]. After graduating, Galt became an [[engineer]] at the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Twentieth Century Motor Works]] where he designed a revolutionary new motor powered by ambient static electricity with the potential to change the world. Like [[#Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]], he has created what many had for years said was impossible. When the company owners decided to run the factory by the collectivist maxim, 'By each according to his ability, to each according to his need', Galt organized a successful [[labor strike]], proclaiming his promise to stop the motor of the world. He began traversing the globe, meeting the world's most successful businessmen, systematically convincing them to follow in his footsteps; one by one, they began abandoning their business empires (which, Galt convinced them, were doomed to failure anyhow, given the increased nationalization of industry by the government). Secretly, these captains of industry, led by Galt and [[banker]] [[#Midas Mulligan|Midas Mulligan]], had created their own society &mdash; a secret enclave of rational individualists living in "[[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Galt's Gulch|Galt's Gulch]]", a town secluded high in a wilderness of mountains. [[#Dagny Taggert|Dagny]] accidentally finds the town &mdash; and a shocked John Galt &mdash; by crash-landing a light [[aircraft]] while pursuing [[#Quentin Daniels|Quentin Daniels]]. Since everyone across the country is repeating the phrase, "Who is John Galt?", it is natural that many people have attempted to answer that question. The phrase becomes an expression of helplessness and despair at the current state of the world. ''Dagny Taggart'' hears a number of [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#John Galt Legends|John Galt Legends]] before finding the real John Galt and eventually joining his cause, and learning that all of the stories have an element of truth to them. :''There is a clothing store in [[Vail, Colorado]] called John Galt Ltd. One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, "Who is John Galt?"'' ==Lillian Rearden== The wildly unsupportive wife of ''Hank Rearden''. They have been married eight years as the novel begins. Lillian is a frigid ''Moocher'' who seeks to destroy her husband. She compares being Rearden's wife with owning the world's most powerful horse. Since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast, she must bridle it down to her level, even if that means it will never reach its full potential and its power will be greviously wasted. Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|Theory of sex]]. She believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness. She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire, which she believes testifies to her moral superiority. However, according to the theory of sex Lillian's lack of sexual capacity results from her inability to experience value in herself; she is therefore unable to respond sexually when she experiences value in others. Lillian tolerates sex with her husband only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his brute instincts. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161 she indicates that she abhors ''Francisco d'Anconia'', because she believes he is a sexual adventurer. Lillian Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161. ==The Looters== A group of evil characters sometimes referred to as "James Taggart and his friends". They are similar to the Moochers. The Looters consist of men and women who use force to obtain value from those who produce it. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Looters include: Mr. Thompson, Balph Eubank, Floyd Ferris, James Taggart, Orren Boyle, Paul Larkin, Robert Stadler, Simon Pritchett, Wesley Mouch, and Cuffy Miegs. ==Midas Mulligan== A wealthy banker who mysteriously disappears in protest after he is given a court order to loan money to an incompetent loan applicant. Midas Mulligan is responsible for the creation and distribution of the money that is exclusively used in Galt's Gulch, and is the original owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. He is also responsible for the production of the money used there. ==The Moochers== A group of characters, similar to the ''Looters'', who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Moochers include ''Lillian Rearden'', ''Philip Rearden'', and Hank Rearden's ''mother''. ==Mort Liddy== A [[hack writer|hack]] composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies that no one listens to. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of ''Lillian Rearden's'' friends and a member of the cultural elite. Mort Liddy appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Mr. Mowen== The president of the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc.]] of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. He is unable to grapple with abstract issues, and is frightened of anything controversial. Dagny Taggart hires Mr. Mowen to produce switches made of [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]]. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be ridden and cajoled before he is willing to accept the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. Mr. Mowen appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Mystery Worker== A menial worker for [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]] who often dines with ''Eddie Willers'' in the employee's cafeteria. Eddie finds him very easy to talk to, and Mystery Worker not-so-subtly leads him on so that Eddie reveals important information about ''Dagny Taggart'' and Taggart Transcontinental. Eddie tells him which suppliers and contractors Dagny is most dependent on, and with remarkable consistency, those are the next men to disappear mysteriously. Mystery Worker is actually John Galt. Mystery Worker appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 133. ==The unnamed newsstand owner== He works in the Taggart Terminal. Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since. He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made. He occasionally chats with ''Dagny Taggart'' when she comes by. On one occasion, in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 132, after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing. He examines a cigarette given to Dagny by ''Hugh Akston'', but it is a new brand that he has never seen before. It carries the sign of the dollar. In his first appearance, the Newsstand Owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind. This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized. In [[Atlas Shrugged]], it is the mind of man that raises mankind. Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind. The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and the Newsstand Owner's discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery of a new kind of men of the mind. ==Orren Boyle== The head of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Associated Steel]] and a friend of ''James Taggart''. He is one of the ''Looters''. He is an investor in the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]]. Orren Boyle appears or is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131, 132, 144, and 152. ==Owen Kellogg== Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]]. He catches ''Dagny Taggart's'' eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]], Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. He admits that he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him. He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do. Later, he is noticed working as transient labor by the unsuccessful/unmotivated businessman ''Mr. Mowen''. Owen Kellog eventually reaches, and settles in Atlantis. Owen Kellogg appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112 and 114. ==Paul Larkin== An unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the ''Looters''. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121 Larkin visits [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] to warn ''Hank Rearden'' of possible trouble from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Washington]]. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131 he meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. Paul Larkin appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121, 132, and 2A1. ==Philip Rearden== The younger brother of ''Hank Rearden'', and a ''Moocher''. He lives in his brother's home in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] and is completely dependent on him. He believes that the source of his sustenance is evil and would love to see him destroyed. He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups. He becomes resentful of his brother's charity. He then requests that he be granted a job from his brother because he should not have to be burdened by the feeling of inadequacy of not earning his own livelihood. When confronted by his brother on how this job should be a mutually beneficial arrangement, Philip shrugs the argument off as irrelevant and that the job should be entitled to him solely based on his need for money and the fact of familial ties. Philip Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161. ==Quentin Daniels== An enterprising engineer hired by ''Dagny Taggart'' to reconstruct ''John Galt's'' motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny sets out to meet Quentin in hopes of convincing him to resume his work. John Galt narrowly gets to him first. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to "[[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Galt's Gulch|Galt's Gulch]]" ==Ragnar Danneskjöld== One of the original ''Strikers''. He is now world famous as a pirate. Ragnar was from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Norway]], the son of a bishop and the scion of one of Norway's most ancient, noble families. He attended [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]] and became friends with ''John Galt'' and ''Francisco d'Anconia'', while studying under ''Hugh Akston'' and ''Robert Stadler''. Ragnar seizes relief ships that are being sent from the [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|United States]] to [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Europe]]. No one knows what he does with the goods he seizes. As the novel progresses, Ragnar begins, for the first time, to become active in American waters, and is even spotted in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Delaware Bay]]. Reportedly, his ship is better than any available in the fleets of the world's navies. When he became a pirate, he was disowned and excommunicated. There is a price on his head in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Norway]], [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Portugal]], [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Turkey]]. According to Ayn Rand (verbal report), his name is a tribute to Victor Hugo. In Hugo's first novel, ''Hans of Iceland'', the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. His name may be a pun on 'Dane's Gold', although "skjöld" means shield, not gold. Ragnar Danneskjöld appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Rearden's mother== Named Gertrude, she is a ''Moocher'' who lives with her son ''Hank Rearden'' at his home in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]]. She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child. She dotes on her weak son ''Philip Rearden''. Rearden's mother appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Richard Halley== Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141 we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24 his opera ''Phaethon'' was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. (It was based on the [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]] in which [[Phaethon]] steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky. Halley changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon succeeds.) For years Halley wrote in obscurity. After nineteen years, ''Phaethon'' was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. Richard Halley is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 114, 133, and 141, and appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152. ==Dr. Robert Stadler== A former professor at Patrick Henry University, mentor to ''Francisco d'Anconia'', ''John Galt'' and ''Ragnar Danneskjöld''. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including the instrument of his demise: ''Project X.'' ==Dr. Simon Pritchett== The prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He is also a ''Looter''. He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals; he believes there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. He explains all this in his book ''The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe'', and at cocktail parties. Dr. Pritchett appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==The Strikers== People of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by ''the Looters'' and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence. The leader of the Strikers is ''John Galt''. Other Strikers include: Hugh Akston, Francisco d'Anconia, Ragnar Danneskjöld, Richard Halley, and the Brakeman. Characters who join the Strikers in the course of the book include: Dagny Taggart, Ellis Wyatt, Hank Rearden, Dick McNamara, and Owen Kellogg. ==Mr. Thompson== The "[[Head of State|Head of the State]]," which essentially means that he's the [[President of the United States]], though he's never specifically referred to as such. In the world of ''Atlas Shrugged'' all Presidents and Prime Ministers are referred to simply as "Head of the State" and "Mr. ____." This is because countries have been standardized as "People's States" which seem to share a common form of government. Thomspon's title can thus be seen as reflecting the fact that the US is in the process of evolving into one of these "People's States." One of the Looters, he's not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modelled him on President [[Harry S. Truman]]. ==Wesley Mouch== A member of the ''Looters'' and, at the beginning of the storyline, the incompetent lobbyist whom ''Hank Rearden'' reluctantly employs in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Washington]]. Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity. Eventually he becomes the most powerful Looter, and the [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|country's]] economic dictator, thereby illustrating Rand's belief that a government-run economy places too much power in the hands of incompetent bureaucrats who would never have positions of similar influence in a private sector business. Wesley Mouch appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131 and is mentioned in section 161. ==See also== *[[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Lists of fictional characters|Atlas Shrugged characters]] Technology in Atlas Shrugged 362 33289648 2005-12-30T20:28:28Z Brianhe 82697 /* Galt's Motor */ prototype '''Technology in Atlas Shrugged''', [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel includes a variety of technological products and devices. In addition to real world technology ([[aircraft]], [[automobile]]s, [[diesel engine]]s, [[phonograph record]]s, [[radio]]s, [[telephone]]s, [[television]], and [[traffic signals]]) [[Atlas Shrugged]] also includes various fictional technologies or fictional variants on real inventions. {{spoilers}} ==Fictional technology== Fictional inventions mentioned in the book include refractor rays (Gulch mirage), Rearden Metal, a sonic [[death ray]] ("Project X"), voice activated door locks (Gulch power station), motors powered by [[static electricity]], palm-activated door locks (Galt's NY lab), shale-oil drilling, and a [[nerve]]-induction [[torture]] machine. ===Traffic Signals=== Early on, the book mentions the "screech" of a traffic signal as it changes. This implies the older technology of mechanical traffic signals, the kind which displayed a pennant or flag indicating stop or go, and the inverse indicator in the opposite direction. Traffic signals using lights have been around for over 40 years, so anything of this type is very old compared to today. ===Project X=== Project X is an invention of the scientists at the state science institute, requiring tons of Rearden Metal. Basically, it is a "death ray", and is capable of destroying anything. The scientists claim that the project will be used to preserve peace and squash rebellion. It is destroyed towards the end of the book, and emits a pulse of radiation that destroys everything in the surrounding area, including Cuffy Meigs and Dr. Stadler, as well as the Taggart Bridge. ===Rearden Metal=== Rearden metal is a [[Fictional_chemical_substance#Fictional_compounds_and_alloys|fictitious metal]] alloy invented by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]]. It is lighter than traditional [[steel]] but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to [[iron]]. It is described as greenish-blue. Among its ingredients are iron and [[copper]]. Initially no one is willing to use Rearden metal because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it. Finally, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. The first thing made from Rearden metal is a [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|bracelet]]. Rearden metal is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 114, 121, 131, 148 and 161. ===Galt's Motor=== John Galt invented a new type of electrical apparatus described in the book as a [[motor]]. However, it does not operate like a motor in the common use of the word today: it is capable of harnessing, transforming and applying energy in many ways other than mechanical. Galt's Motor was capable of [[Radio jamming|jamming]] all [[radio receiver]]s on Earth, and completely destroying the contents of Galt's [[booby-trap]]ped laboratory without causing [[collateral damage|collateral structural damage]]. Though Rand describes it as turning [[static electricity ]] into useful [[mechanical work]], its operation is more reminiscent of modern speculation about [[zero-point energy]]. Dagny discovers a discarded prototype of the motor and it is superficially described in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] Part 1, Chapter 9. Galt shows Dagny the motor and describes it in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] Part 3, Chapter 1. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Fictional technology|Atlas Shrugged]] Companies in Atlas Shrugged 364 32287258 2005-12-21T22:16:51Z Topynate 85137 removed NPOV and irrelevant additions to Taggart Transcontinental '''Companies in Atlas Shrugged''', the [[Ayn Rand]] [[novel]], generally, are divided into two groups, these that are operated by sympathetic characters are given the name of the owner, while companies operated by evil or incompetent characters are given generic names. In [[Atlas Shrugged]] men who give their names to their companies all become [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Strikers]] in due time. ==Amalgamated Switch and Signal== A company run by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Mr. Mowen]] and located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Connecticut]]. They have supplied Taggart Transcontinental for generations. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] orders [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Rearden Metal]] switches from them. Amalgamated Switch and Signal appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Associated Steel== Associated Steel is the company owned by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Orren Boyle]]. The company was started with just a few hundred-thousand dollars of [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Boyle's]] own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants. Boyle used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business. Associated Steel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 and 171. ==Ayers Music Publishing Company== Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Richard Halley]]. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] contacts [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Mr. Ayers]] to inquire as to the existence of [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Halley's Fifth Concerto]]. Ayers Music Publishing Company is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 114. ==Barton and Jones== The company, located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Denver]], that supplies food for the workers rebuilding the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. They go bankrupt in the middle of the project. Barton and James is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==d'Anconia Copper== A copper and mining company founded by [[Minor Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Sebastian d'Anconia]] in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Argentina]] during the time of the Inquisition. Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world. His dream, from childhood, is to increase the size of the company by 100%. d'Anconia Copper is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 152 and 171. ==Hammond Motors== A car company in Colorado. They make the best cars on the market until the founder disappears. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] buys a Hammond on his trip to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Incorporated Tool== A company that is contracted to deliver drill heads to Taggart Transcontinental but who fail to do this. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Phoenix-Durango== The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence. However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Ellis Wyatt]] revives the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] and Taggart Transcontinental's [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] fails to service Wyatt adequately. Later, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|James Taggart]] conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] with the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]]. The Phoenix-Durango is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 145, 146, 147 and 152. ==Rearden Coal== A business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Limestone== A business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Ore== The first business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]]. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Steel== A company founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] about ten years prior to the start of the story in the novel. Rearden bought an abandoned steel mill in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Philadelphia]] at a time when all the experts thought that such a venture would be hopeless. He turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country. As [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] struggles to save Taggart Transcontinental, she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel. Rearden Steel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 121, 131 (alluded to), 161 and 162. ==Summit Casting== A company in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Illinois]] under contract to deliver rail spikes to Taggart Transcontinental. They go bankrupt before they can deliver, prompting [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] to fly to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Chicago]] and buy the company to get it started again. Summit Casting is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Taggart Transcontinental== The fictional [[railroad]] run by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]]. Her commitment to the railroad creates one of the book's major conflicts. Taggart Transcontinental was founded by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Nathaniel Taggart]] who lived three generations (or so) prior to Dagny's generation. It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants. Its motto is, ''From Ocean to Ocean''. The 'flagship' of Taggart Transcontinental is the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Taggart Comet]] which runs from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|San Francisco]], and which has never been late. ==United Locomotive Works== An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to Taggart Transcontinental. The order is delayed in perpetuity, and the [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|president]] of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer as to why this is so. The United Locomotive Works is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 133 and 141. ==Wyatt Oil== The oil company run by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Ellis Wyatt]]. Wyatt's father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]], but when Ellis Wyatt took over the business took off. He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up. The success of Wyatt Oil that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] into the leading economy in the country. Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on Taggart Transcontinental's [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] to ship its oil. But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] economy, Wyatt started using the small but well-managed Phoenix-Durango instead. This prompted [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends to drive the Phoenix-Durango out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]]. Afterwards, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] has to rebuild the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] so it can supply transportation to Wyatt Oil - if she fails, the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]], and of the whole country, could collapse. Wyatt Oil is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 132 and 171. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Fictional companies|Atlas Shrugged]] Concepts in Atlas Shrugged 365 28929793 2005-11-21T20:43:06Z Iceberg3k 50063 Some of the important '''concepts''' discussed in [[Atlas Shrugged]] include the ''Sanction of the Victim'' and the ''Theory of Sex''. ===Sanction of the Victim=== The Sanction of the Victim is defined as "the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the [[evil]], to accept the role of sacrificial victim for the '[[sin]]' of creating values." The entire story of Atlas Shrugged can be seen as an answer to the question, what would happen if this sanction was revoked? When Atlas shrugs, relieving himself of the burden of carrying the world, he is revoking his sanction. The concept is supposedly original in the thinking of [[Ayn Rand]] and is foundational to her moral theory. She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it. To quote from [[Atlas_Shrugged/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]]: "Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us", and, "I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it." Morality requires that we do not sanction our own victimhood, Rand claims. In adhering to this concept, Rand assigns virtue to the trait of [[selfishness]]. Throughout Atlas Shrugged, numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put their finger on what it is. The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim. The first person to grasp the concept is [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]], who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction. We first glimpse the concept in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121 when [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 146 the principle is stated explicitly by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dan Conway]]: "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain." ===Theory of Sex=== In rejecting the traditional [[Christianity|Christian]] altruist [[moral code]], Rand also rejects the sexual code that, in her view, is a [[logical implication]] of [[altruism]]. Rand introduces a theory of sex in ''Atlas Shrugged'' which is purportedly implied by her broader ethical and psychological theories. Far from being a debasing animal instinct, sex is the highest celebration of our greatest values. Sex is a physical response to intellectual and spiritual values&mdash;a mechanism for giving concrete expression to values that could otherwise only be experienced in the abstract. One is sexually attracted to those who embody one's values. Those who have base values will be attracted to baseness, to those who also have ignoble values. Those who lack any clear purpose will find sex devoid of meaning. People of high values will respond sexually to those who embody high values. That our [[sexual desire]] is a response to the embodiment of our values in others is a radical and original theory. However, even those who are sympathetic to this theory have criticized it as being incomplete. For instance, since according to Rand the economy is also such an expression of values, and since it is always possible to encounter someone who embodies one's values more completely, this would seem to make [[family]] undesirable. (Indeed, Rand treats "family" as a sort of trap.) Furthermore, [[promiscuity]], [[prostitution]], and an endless [[round-robin]] of "values-driven" sexual relationships would become inevitable. From this viewpoint, one could say that [[Aldous Huxley]] portrayed the ideal sexual state: ''[[Brave New World]]'' features humans who are incapable of deviating from their caste-oriented "values", which naturally include a code of sexual desirability. Her sexual theory is illustrated in the contrasting relationships of [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] with [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Lillian Rearden]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]], and later with Dagny Taggart and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]]. Other important illustrations of this theory are found in: [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|Section]] 152 - recounts Dagny's relationship with [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Francisco d'Anconia]]. [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|Section]] 161 - recounts Hank and Lillian Rearden's courtship, and Lillian's attitude towards sex. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] Places In Atlas Shrugged 366 15899096 2003-03-13T15:37:38Z Ams80 7543 Making redirect #REDIRECT [[Places in Atlas Shrugged]] Things in Atlas Shrugged 368 35151715 2006-01-14T15:11:15Z 80.177.190.150 /* John Galt Legends */ This is a list of general items in [[Ayn Rand]]'s ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. {{spoiler}} ==Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule== The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the National Alliance of Railroads in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 145, allegedly to prevent "destructive competition" between [[railroad]]s. The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country. It was crafted by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] as a favor for [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]], with the purpose of driving the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged#Colorado|Colorado]]. ==Bracelet== The very first thing made from ''Rearden Metal'' is a bracelet. The bracelet is used to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged#Theory of Sex|Theory of Sex]]. The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent Rearden Metal. When he gives it to [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] as a present in section 121; she says, "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails." However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift; her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos. In section 161, Lillian wears this bracelet at a party thrown on her anniversary. She makes fun of it all night long, and when [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears Lillian say she would gladly trade it for a common diamond bracelet, Dagny takes her up on it. Lillian later asks for it back upon realizing her power over her husband was slowly diminishing. Dagny denies the offer. The bracelet appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161. ==Cub Club== A night club in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]]. When [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen on Third Avenue. ==Equalization of Opportunity Bill== A bill designed by the [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Looters|Looters]] that proposes to limit the number of businesses any one person can own to one. It is aimed primarily at [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]], who uses [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Ore|Rearden Ore]] to guarantee [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] with a supply of iron ore. By passing this Bill, the Looters can seize Rearden's other businesses for themselves, and then deny him the iron he needs to run his steel mills. The Looters claim the Bill is meant to give a chance to the little guy. The Equalization of Opportunity Bill is appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Galt's Gulch== A secluded refuge in a valley of Colorado where the men of ability have retreated after relinquishing participation in American society. Nicknamed "Galt's Gulch" by its inhabitants, it is in fact the property of "Midas" Mulligan, one of the early strikers to follow John Galt's call. This call was to the great men of mind and action to abandon the increasingly slave-state inclinations of a decaying United States - to go on strike - thereby withdrawing the only thing supporting the parasites and looters. Sarcastically nicknamed Midas in the press because everything he seemed to touch turned to gold, Mulligan adopted the nickname during his explosive investment career before dropping out of sight. He had purchased this land among his far-ranging speculative endeavors, and subsequently retreated to it upon his disappearance. Other strikers soon followed him there, including John Galt, renting or buying land for summer retreats as a respite from continuing their search for fellow strikers among the increasingly collapsing American society. Eventually, a society develops in Galt's Gulch as more people live there year-round as the outside world becomes virtually unsafe to visit. We are introduced to Galt's Gulch in the final section of the Novel, in the first chapter, entitled Atlantis. The people live with each other in completely free society and embody everything which is the thesis of the Novel, the appropriate values for a society of Mankind: philosophical, moral, economic, legal, aesthetic, and sexual, among others too numerous to mention. We find industrious, ambitious, happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation. Conversely, there is a reverence for private property; everything transacted is paid for with the re-invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of Midas Mulligan's bank which now resides in the valley. The townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the Novel, who all now reside and produce in the valley. They purchase power inexpensively from Galt and his invention of the static electricity motor, maintain their anonymity from the outside world via Galt's invention of the air-wave reflection device (giving the view from above the camouflage of reflected images of other mountainsides nearby), and some attend Galt's lectures on Physics, where he explains his discoveries on new fundamental laws and applied mathematics. The people purchase medical treatment from the care of Dr. Hendricks, who uses his invention of a portable [[X-ray]] machine to initially diagnose Dagny Taggart upon her crash landing into the valley, attend concerts of new musical compositions of Richard Halley who has continued to compose in the Valley, acquire raw materials from the efforts of Francisco D'Anconia's excavations around the valley, attend philosophy lectures from the now-retired pirate Ragnar Danneskjöld, receive loans from Midas Mulligan, etc. Rand's description of Galt's Gulch was inspired by a visit she and her husband Frank O'Connor took to [[Ouray, Colorado]] while researching Colorado for the novel. ==Halley's Fifth Concerto== [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] disappeared after he had written only four concertos. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 112, [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], an enthusiastic fan of Halley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Brakeman|brakeman]] on the Taggart Comet. She asks him what it is; he responds Halley's Fifth Concerto. When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was. Later, Dagny calls [[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged|Mr. Ayers]] to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto. Ayers says Halley did not. Halley's Fifth Concerto is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 114 and 152. ==Halley's Fourth Concerto== The last thing [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] wrote before he disappeared. It is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] listened to this piece in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152. ==''Heaven's In Your Backyard''== A film. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy]] wrote the score, using a bastardized version of ''Halley's Fourth Concerto''. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==John Galt Legends== Since everyone across the country is asking, "Who is John Galt?", it is not surprising that some people have come up with answers. A number of John Galt Legends are told, each of which, ironically, turns out to be true, at least symbolically. '''''Legend 1''''' ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): A [[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged|spinster]] at [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden's]] party tells [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] the story. John Galt was a man of inestimable wealth who found the sunken island of [[Atlantis]] while fighting the worst storm ever wreaked upon the world. The sight was so beautiful that, having seen it, he could never go back to the world, so he sank his ship and took his fortune down with him. The actual John Galt was a man who created something of inestimable value, a new motor, and who discovered the secret to what was wrong with the world while fighting the most evil social philosophy ever put into practice. The world he envisioned was so beautiful that he refused to live in the world that was, and disappeared, taking the secret of motor with him. Atlantis, the Isles of the Blessed, is a place where no one could enter except those who had the spirit of a hero. Described in these terms, it is the same as ''Galt's Gulch''. ==Moe's Delicatessen== A delicatessen in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged#New York|New York]]. When [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the ''Cub Club'' and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen on Third Avenue. ==National Alliance of Railroads== An industry group formed to promote the welfare of the industry as a whole, requiring members to sacrifice their individual interests for the common good. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] has friends on the National Alliance of Railroads, and he gets them to support the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule, which uses a string of pretenses to drive the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged#Colorado|Colorado]]. The National Alliance of Railroads is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 131, 145 and 146. ==National Council of Metal Industries== An industry group that uses political pull to get its way. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] has friends on the National Council of Metal Industries, and he gets them to support legislation that will hurt [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] and help [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Associated Steel|Associated Steel]]. The National Council of Metal Industries is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131. ==Patrick Henry University== The most prestigious university in the world. It was attended by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]], [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Ragnar_Danneskj.F6ld|Ragnar Danneskjold]], where they met and became friends. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] taught there. It is located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Cleveland]]. ==Rio Norte Line== A branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that runs from [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Cheyenne, Wyoming]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|El Paso, Texas]]. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 133, 141, 146, 147 and 148. ==Rockdale Station== A station on the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] line, located five miles from the Taggart estate and overlooking the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Hudson River]]. It was the site of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16. It appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152. ==San Sebastian== A community built to house the workers of the ''San Sebastian Mines'' and their families. As it turns out, the houses, roads, and everything of practical value is built so poorly that the community can be expected to fall apart within a year or two. Only the church was built to last. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152. ==San Sebastian Line== A branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that serves the ''San Sebastian Mines'' in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]]. The mines were developed by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and attracted significant investments from [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]], who assumed Francisco could be counted on to deliver a winner. The San Sebastian Line is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion. When it is nationalized in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 142, it is referred to as the San Sebastian Railroad. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 114, 131, 132, 133, 142, 143 and 152. ==San Sebastian Mines== San Sebastian Mines is a copper mining project in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]] founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and named after his ancestor [[Minor characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Sebastian d'Anconia]]. Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise. Investors include [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]. Taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], the ''San Sebastian Line'', to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project. When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the ''San Sebastian Line'', only to discover there is no copper and there never was. When Taggart tells Francisco he considers the Mines a rotten swindle ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161), Francisco explains that Taggart should be pleased with the way he ran the mines. He says he put into practice those moral precepts that were accepted around the world. The world says it is evil to pursue a profit &mdash; he got no profit from the worthless mines. The world says the purpose of an enterprise is not to produce, but to give a livelihood to its employees &mdash; it produced nothing, but created jobs that would never have existed if one was only concerned with developing a real mine. The world says the owner is an exploiter and the workers do all the real work &mdash; he left the enterprise entirely in the hands of the workers and did not burden anyone with his presence. The world says need is more important than ability &mdash; he hired a mining specialist who needed a job very badly, but had no ability. In short, the San Sebastian Mines were an illustration of what happens when this moral code is put into practice, and a warning of what will soon happen to the world as a whole. The San Sebastian Mines appear in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 131, 132, 142, 151, 152 and 161. ==Taggart Building== A skyscraper in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]], the headquarters of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], and the location of the Taggart Terminal. ==Taggart Comet== The Taggart Comet is [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] flagship train. It runs from [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|San Francisco]], and has never been late. The Taggart Comet appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 113 and 152. ==The Future== See [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]]. ==''The Heart Is A Milkman''== ''The Heart is a Milkman'' is a novel being written by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]]. It is about the central fact of human existence, frustration. Eubank says he will dedicate it to [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==The Octopus== See [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]]. ==''The Vulture Is Molting''== A best-selling novel that captures the spirit of the times, ''The Vulture Is Molting'' is "A penetrating study of a businessman's greed. A fearless revelation of man's depravity." The book is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141 as one of the artifacts of [[popular culture]] that depresses [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] with its baseness. ==Wayne-Falkland Hotel== A luxurious hotel in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]], it is considered the best hotel left in the world. It is where [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] stays when he is in town. It was also the scene of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] debut ball when she was seventeen. It may be based on the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City. The Wayne-Falkland Hotel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 141, 151 and 152. ==Wyatt Oil Fields== The Wyatt Oil Fields are in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]]. They are a bunch of old, abandoned oil wells that were revived by a new technique invented by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]. This has almost single-handedly revitalized the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]]. The Wyatt Oil Fields appear in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111 and 161. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Lists of fictional things]] Topics of note in Atlas Shrugged 369 38560634 2006-02-07T02:58:11Z Ds13 43805 reduce generalization about lack of lying ===Atlas=== As told in ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', Atlas carried the world on his shoulders. But in the [[Greek Mythology|Greek Myths]], the Titan [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] stands on the earth and holds up the sky. In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of as being round. Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this. ===Character names=== Some of the character names are, or appear to be, puns, or have some other significance. (See also [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]].) When asked why so many of her names have syllables with many hard consonants like dag, tag, den, stad, Rand said that she just liked those sounds. *'''Ragnar Danneskjold''' - sounds like 'Dane's Gold', a tribute paid by the medieval English to the Vikings to bribe them into being peaceful. (However, note "skjold" means shield, not gold.) However, the hero of [[Victor Hugo]]'s first novel, ''Hans of Iceland'' becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. In the 1970's, Rand told Marsha Familaro Enright that her use of this name was not plagiarism because there really were Counts of Danneskjöld. *'''Robert Stadler''' - sounds like the German word for state, Staat. Dr. Stadler is a statist, in that he believes it appropriate and necessary for the state to fund scientific research. *'''Francisco d'Anconia''' - Rand's husband was Frank O'Connor. *'''John Galt''' - the name of a 19th century Scottish novelist, though this is apparently coincidental. Galt is close to 'Geld' and 'gold'. The name was probably used because it had to be such that it could become proverbial&mdash;this would not be possible with a long, awkward name. *'''Wesley Mouch''' - Mouch is exactly what his name sounds like, a mooch. He has no real virtue or skill, but somehow becomes a powerful figure. ===Crime=== Common street crime is conspicuously absent in ''Atlas Shrugged''. Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked. ===Historical figures and events=== ''Atlas Shrugged'' takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures and events that are mentioned. *[[Aristotle]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Francisco d'Anconia wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover. *[[Dark Ages]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): Ragnar Danneskjold's piracy is likened to something out of the Dark Ages. *[[Inquisition]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Sebastian d'Anconia flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition. *[[Middle Ages]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): It is said that Ragnar Danneskjold hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages. *[[Nero]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Francisco d'Anconia compares himself to the Emperor Nero. *[[Patrick Henry]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): The [[eponym]] of Patrick Henry University. *[[Vikings]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): It is said that Ragnar Danneskjold hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages. ===Humor=== In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, Francisco cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, Francisco lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church. "The church, I think, will stand. They'll need it," he quips. Since the other things are things of value&mdash;houses, roads, etc.&mdash;it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value. Almost every nation in the world except the United States is referred to as "The People's State of...", and they are all, apparently, the recipients of relief supplies from the United States. In conversation, people casually refer to them as "The People's State of..." rather than just, say, France or Norway. It is obvious that people would not refer to countries by their formal names in casual conversation&mdash;we don't call Canada "The Dominion of Canada" or Germany "The Federal Republic of Germany"&mdash;so by having her characters do this Rand is exercising her dry wit. ===Lying=== The sympathetic characters of ''Atlas Shrugged'' generally do not tell lies. With the following exceptions, even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out. *In section 112 Brakeman tells Dagny Taggart he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it. *In section 141 Francisco d'Anconia tells the press he came to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]] because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Moe's Delicatessen]]. *In section 151 we learn Dagny Taggart once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that Francisco had given her. This was the only lie she ever told. *In section 152 Dagny Taggart asks Francisco if Richard Halley has written a fifth concerto. He is evasive and tells her that Halley has stopped writing. Is this a lie? *In section 161, Hank Rearden tells Dagny that he was the one who invited Bertram Scudder to the Rearden's anniversary party. It was actually Lillian who invited him, and Rearden had been furious about it. *In part 2/chapter 9, Eddie Willers tells Dagny Taggart that his hesitation and uncertainty is caused by the illegality of her directions. In fact, Eddie was shocked by the evidence and thus realization of her affair with Hank Rearden. ===People's States=== Almost every nation that is mentioned, other than the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|United States]], is referred to as a "People's State". These include: * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|England]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|France]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|India]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Norway]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Portugal]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Turkey]] The leaders of these countries are given the title the "Head of the People's State," and called "Mr._____" (or "Senor"____). The President of the United States is refered to as "Mr. Thompson" and called the "Head of the State," which seems to imply the US is on its way to becoming a People's State as well. ===Religion=== In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152 Francisco tells Dagny he named the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]] after his ancestor Sebastian d'Anconia, a man they both honor deeply. This, to Dagny, is blasphemy&mdash;the only kind of blasphemy she understands. ===Social classes=== Rand is sometimes called an elitist. This claim is probably accurate if we allow for the fact that Rand had her own standard of eliteness&mdash;throughout ''Atlas Shrugged'', virtue is equated with creative ability. It is, however, worth noting that in ''Atlas Shrugged'', there are no characters with creative ability which do not function as [[author surrogate]] characters (most notably Dagny Taggart); conversely, all of the [[Straw man|characters]] which disagree with the author are unintelligent and creatively bankrupt, and usually actively destructive. Compare to the real world, where scientists, inventors, artists and industrialists often have wildly varying and strongly conflicting desires and opinions. Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of ''Atlas Shrugged''. Among the heroes, John Galt and Hank Rearden are from working class backgrounds, while Dagny Taggart and Francisco d'Anconia are from wealthy families. Among the villains, Fred Kinnan is from a working class background, while James Taggart and Betty Pope are from wealthy families. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] Atlas Shrugged 568 42127150 2006-03-04T00:18:59Z 72.141.37.94 [[Image:Atlas shrugged cover.jpg|thumbnail|200px|''Atlas Shrugged'' cover by [[Nick Gaetano]]. ]] '''''Atlas Shrugged''''' is a novel by Russian-born writer and philosopher [[Ayn Rand]], first published in [[1957]] in the [[United States|USA]], and Rand's last work of fiction before concentrating her writings exclusively on philosophy. Most regard ''Atlas Shrugged'' as Rand's most famous work, her ''tour de force'', and most [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivists]] hold it to be, objectively (as in factually), the greatest novel of all time. Its theme (as stated by Rand) is "the importance of the individual's reasoning mind in human life." It is a highly philosophical and [[allegory|allegorical]] story that deals with themes of Rand's own [[Objectivism]], though she was not yet known as a philosopher when it was written. Whether or not she had philosophical intentions, and to what extent or sense the novel is an allegory, are controversial subjects. In fact, the ideas behind the book, and their extremism, as well as its relative popularity have made it one of the most controversial novels of the [[20th century]]. It is also one of the [[List_of_longest_novels|longest novels]] ever written, totaling one-thousand pages or more (depending on the publication). {{spoiler}} ==Philosophy and writing== The theme of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is that independent, rational thought is the motor that powers the world. In the book, "men of the mind" go on [[Strike action|strike]], allowing the collapse of what only they hold together &#8212; a peaceful cohesiveness Rand claims that humans, particularly those whose productive work comes from mental effort, may create wherever forceful human interference is absent. Given no alternative, they remove themselves from the "looters." The title is an analogy: the rational men, like the Greek God Atlas, hold the world on their shoulders; in the form of a strike, they have chosen to 'shrug.' The book is rooted in [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]], the philosophical system founded by Rand. Rand suggests that society stagnates when independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized, and that, inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement. Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is rewarded best when [[private property]] is respected strictly. She advocated [[Laissez-faire|laissez-faire capitalism]] as the [[political system]] that is most consistent with these beliefs. These considerations make ''Atlas Shrugged'' a highly political book, especially in its portrayal of [[fascism]], [[socialism]] and [[communism]], or indeed any form of state intervention in societal affairs, as fatally flawed. However, Rand claimed that it is not a ''fundamentally'' political book, but that the politics portrayed in the novel are a result of her attempt to display her image of the ideal man and the position of the human mind in society. Rand argues that independence and individual achievement drive the world, and should be embraced. Her worldview requires a "[[rationality|rational]]" [[moral code]]. She disputes the notion that [[self-sacrifice]] is a virtue, and is similarly dismissive of human faith in a [[divinity|god]] or higher being. The book positions itself against [[Christianity]] specifically, often directly within the characters' dialogue. == Setting == Exactly when ''Atlas Shrugged'' is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague. In [[Wikibooks:Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, the population of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York City]] is given as 7 [[million]]. The historical New York City reached 7 million people in the [[1930s]], which might place the novel sometime after that. There are many early [[20th century]] technologies available, but the political situation is clearly different from actual history. One interpretation is that the novel takes place a hundred (or perhaps ''hundreds'') of years in the future, implying that since the world lapsed into its socialistic morass, a global-wide stagnation has occurred in technological growth, population growth, and indeed growth of ''any'' kind; the wars, economic depressions, and other events of the 20th century would be a distant memory to all but [[scholar]]s and [[academician]]s. This would be in line with Rand's ideas and commentary on other novels depicting utopian and dystopian societies. Furthermore, this is also in line with an excerpt from a 1964 interview with ''Playboy'' magazine in which Rand states "What we have today is not a capitalist society, but a mixed economy -- that is, a mixture of freedom and controls, which, by the presently dominant trend, is moving toward dictatorship. The action in ''Atlas Shrugged'' takes place at a time when society has reached the stage of dictatorship. When and if this happens, that will be the time to go on strike, but not until then.", thus implying that her novel takes place at some point in the future. The concept of societal stagnation in the wake of collectivist systems is central to the plot of another of Rand's works, ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]''. All countries outside the US have become, or become during the novel, "People's States". There are many examples of early 20th century [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|technology]] in ''Atlas Shrugged'', but no post-war advances such as [[nuclear weapon]]s, [[helicopter]]s, or [[computer]]s. [[Jet plane]]s are mentioned briefly as being a relatively new technology. [[Television]] is a novelty that has yet to assume any cultural significance, while [[radio]] broadcasts are prominent. Though Rand does not use in the book many of the technological innovations available while she was writing, she introduces some advanced, fictional inventions (e.g., sound-based [[weapons of mass destruction|weapons of mass destruction]], torture devices, as well as power plants). Most of the action in ''Atlas Shrugged'' occurs in the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|United States]]. However, there are important events around the world, such as in the People's States of [[Mexico]], [[Chile]], and [[Argentina]], and [[piracy]] at sea. ==Plot== A section by section analysis of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is available on [[Wikibooks:Atlas Shrugged|Wikibooks]]. The novel’s plot, split into three sections (though the story is coherent apart from these,) is extremely complex. The first two sections, and to some extent the last, follow Dagny Taggart, a no-nonsense railroad executive, and her attempt to keep the company alive despite the fact that society is falling towards collectivism/altruism/statism. All throughout the novel people repeat a platitude Dagny greatly resents: ‘Who is John Galt?’ It is a reflection of their helplessness, as the saying means ‘Don’t ask important questions, because they don’t have answers.’ The geniuses of the world seem to be disappearing, and the apparent decline of civilization is making it more and more difficult for her to sustain her life-long aspirations of running the trans-continental railroad, which has been in her family for several generations. She deals with other characters such as Hank Rearden, a self-made businessman of great integrity whose career is hindered by his false feelings of obligation towards his wife. Francisco d'Anconia, Dagny’s childhood friend, first love, and king of the copper industry, appears to have become a worthless playboy who is purposely destroying his business. As the novel progresses: the myths about the real John Galt, as well as Francisco d'Anconia’s actions, become more and more a reflection of the state of the culture, and seem to make more and more sense; and, Hank and Dagny begin to experience the futility of their attempts to survive in a society that hates them and those like them for their greatness. During their plight, Dagny and Hank find the remnants of a motor that turns atmospheric energy into kinetic energy, an astounding feat; they also find evidence that the minds (the ‘Atlases’) of the world are disappearing because of one particular ‘destroyer’ taking them away. Dagny and Hank deal with the irrationalities and apparent contradictions of their atmosphere, and search for the creator of the motor as well as ‘the destroyer’ who is draining the world of its prime movers, in an effort to secure their ability to live rational lives. All of this leads to an elaborate action-based explanation and eventual climax, presenting an understanding of all of the issues explored, and breaking everything down into one basic conflict. The final parts of the novel involve a speech by the story's true protagonist, and a resolution concerning the fate of society. The question 'Who is John Galt' is also answered. * [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Characters]] ** [[Minor Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Minor Characters]] * [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Companies]] * [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|Concepts]] * [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Places]] * [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Technology]] * [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Things]] * [[Topics of note in Atlas Shrugged|Topics of note]] ==Film adaptation== Rights to the novel ''Atlas Shrugged'' were purchased by the Baldwin Entertainment Group in [[2003]] with the intent of producing a feature-length film. Company leader [[Howard Baldwin]] was quoted in September 2004 as saying "...everything is on track and [the movie] hasn’t been held up one bit... I assure you that this will be a big movie and ''it will get made''." Two works of Rand's&mdash;''[[The Fountainhead]]'' and ''[[We the Living]]''&mdash;have been adapted into movies so far. ==External links== * http://www.aynrand.org * http://www.atlassociety.org/news_atlas-movie-updated050304.asp * http://www.cordair.com/gaetano/index.htm ==References and further reading== ===Publications=== * ''Atlas Shrugged'', Ayn Rand; Signet; (September 1996) ISBN 0451191145 * ''Atlas Shrugged (Cliffs Notes)'', Andrew Bernstein; [[Cliffs Notes]]; (June 5, 2000) ISBN 0764585568 * ''The World of Atlas Shrugged'', Robert Bidinotto/The Objectivist Center; HighBridge Company; (April 19, 2001) ISBN 156511471X * ''Atlas Shrugged: Manifesto of the Mind (Twayne's Masterwork Studies, No. 174)'' Mimi Reisel Gladstein; Twayne Pub; (June 2000) ISBN 0805716386 * ''The Moral Revolution in Atlas Shrugged'', [[Nathaniel Branden]]; The Objectivist Center; (July 1999) ISBN 1577240332 * ''Odysseus, Jesus, and Dagny'', Susan McCloskey; The Objectivist Center; (August 1, 1998) ISBN 1577240251 === Foreign translations === * [[German language|German]]: ''Wer ist John Galt?'' (Hamburg, Germany: GEWIS Verlag), ISBN 3-932-56403-0. * [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''La rivolta di Atlante'', 2 vol. (Milano, Garzanti, 1958), Out of print. Translator: Laura Grimaldi * [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''肩をすくめるアトラス''  (ビジネス社), ISBN 4-8284-1149-6. Translator: 脇坂 あゆみ. * [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: ''De som beveger verden''. (Kagge Forlag, 2000), ISBN 8-248-90083-5 (hardcover), ISBN 8-248-90169-6 (paperback). Translator: John Erik Bøe Lindgren. * [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Atlas Zbuntowany'' (Zysk i S-ka, 2004), ISBN 83-7150-969-3 (Twarda). Translator: Iwona Michałowska. * [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''La Rebelion de Atlas.'' (Editorial Grito Sagrado), ISBN 9-872-09510-8 (hardcover), ISBN 9-872-09511-6 (paperback). * [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''Och världen skälvde.'' ([http://www.timbro.se/rand/ Timbro Förlag], 2005), ISBN 9-175-66556-5. Translator: Maud Freccero. * [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Atlas Vazgeçti.'' (Plato Yay&#305;nlar&#305;, 2003), ISBN 9-759-67726-1. Translator: Belk&#305;s Çorapç&#305;. ===Reviews=== *{{note|geoff}} [http://www.cix.co.uk/~morven/atlas.html Review] from a self-proclaimed non-Libertarian *{{note|weird-bookshelf}} [http://www.strangewords.com/archive/ayn.html Review] from the Weird Bookshelf ("fine science fiction books"). *{{note|Slade}} Slade, Robert M. [http://victoria.tc.ca/int-grps/books/techrev/bkatshrg.rvw Review] from the Internet Review Project (1998). *{{note|pierssen}} [http://www.pierssen.com/cfile/objectivist.htm A review] which, while attempting to address the environmentalist issues, claims that ''Atlas Shrugged'' is a sequel to ''[[The Lord of the Rings]].'' *{{note|analysis}} [http://atlasshruggednovel.blogspot.com A Review] and in-depth Chapter-by-Chapter, Motif-by-Motif, etc. analysis. ===Satires and parodies=== *[http://kamita.com/misc/illuminatus/illuminatus.html "Telemachus Sneezed"] within Robert Anton Wilson's [[Illuminatus! Trilogy]] (Search for "Taffy Rhinestone" in the former link to read the spoof.) *[http://www.spudworks.com/article/66/2/ The Abridged ''Atlas Shrugged''] - a thousand pages distilled into about a thousand words. *[http://www.modernhumorist.com/mh/0101/rand/ Atlas Shr], a look at [[parallel universe (fiction)|parallel universe]]s wherein all of Ayn Rand's books are four hundred pages shorter *''Elvis Shrugged'', an early '90s comic book miniseries published by Revolutionary Comics in which popular entertainers [[Elvis Presley]], a cyborg [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Frank Zappa]], [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], [[Spike Lee]], and others take the place of various ''Atlas Shrugged'' counterparts. *[http://www.mskousen.com/Books/Articles/shrugged.html Oscar Shrugged], a depiction of the first film festival held in Galt's Gulch *[http://www.angryflower.com/atlass.gif ''Atlas Shrugged 2: One Hour Later''], starring Bob the Angry Flower [[Category:1957 books]] [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Novels]] [[Category:Philosophical novels]] [[Category:Books critical of Christianity]] [[Category:Books by Ayn Rand]] [[de:Atlas wirft die Welt ab]] [[es:La Rebelion de Atlas]] [[he:מרד הנפילים]] [[sv:Och världen skälvde]] [[zh:阿特拉斯摆脱重负]] Anthropology 569 41967527 2006-03-02T23:04:10Z 168.18.146.160 '''Anthropology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''άνθρωπος'', "human" or "person") consists of the study of [[humanity]] (see genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''). It is [[holism|holistic]] in two senses: it is concerned with all humans at all times and with all dimensions of humanity. A primary trait that traditionally distinguished anthropology from other humanistic disciplines is an emphasis on cultural relativity, indepth examination of context, and cross cultural comparisons. In [[North America]], "anthropology" is traditionally divided into four sub-disciplines: * [[physical anthropology]] or [[biological anthropology]], which studies [[primatology|primate behavior]], [[human evolution]], [[osteology]], [[forensics]] and [[population genetics]]; * [[cultural anthropology]], (called [[social anthropology]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and now often known as [[socio-cultural anthropology]]). Areas studied by cultural anthropologists include social networks, [[diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]], social behavior, [[kinship]] patterns, law, politics, [[ideology]], religion, beliefs, patterns in production and consumption, exchange, socialization, gender, and other expressions of culture, with strong emphasis on the importance of [[fieldwork]] or participant-observation (i.e living among the social group being studied for an extended period of time); * [[linguistic anthropology]], which studies variation in [[language]] across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture; and * [[archaeology]], that studies the material remains of human [[society|societies]]. Archaeology itself is normally treated as a separate (but related) field in the rest of the world, although closely related to the anthropological field of [[material culture]], which deals with physical objects created or used within a living or past group as mediums of understanding its cultural values. More recently, some anthropology programs began dividing the field into two, one emphasizing the [[humanities]] and [[critical theory]], the other emphasizing the [[natural science]]s and [[empiricism|empirical observation]]. ==Historical and institutional context== :''Main Article: [[History of anthropology]]'' The anthropologist [[T J Brewer]] once characterized anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences. Understanding how anthropology developed contributes to understanding how it fits into other academic disciplines. Contemporary anthropologists claim a number of earlier thinkers as their forebearers and the discipline has several sources. However, anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. Traditions of [[jurisprudence]], [[history]], [[philology]] and [[sociology]] developed during this time and informed the development of the [[social sciences]] of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the [[romanticism|romantic]] reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as [[Herder]] and later [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. Institutionally anthropology emerged from [[natural history]] (expounded by authors such as [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Buffon]]). This was the study of human beings - typically people living in European [[colonialism|colonies]]. Thus studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was more or less equivalent to studying the flora and fauna of those places. It was for this reason, for instance, that [[Lewis Henry Morgan]] could write monographs on both ''The League of the Iroquois'' and ''The American Beaver and His Works''. This is also why the material culture of 'civilized' nations such as China have historically been displayed in fine arts museums alongside European art while artifacts from Africa or Native North American cultures were displayed in Natural History Museums with dinosaur bones and nature dioramas. This being said, curatorial practice has changed dramatically in recent years, and it would be wrong to see anthropology as merely an extension of colonial rule and European [[chauvinism]], since its relationship to [[imperialism]] was and is complex. Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the nineteenth century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form - by 1935, for example, it was possible for T.K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled ''A Hundred Years of Anthropology''. Early anthropology was dominated by 'the comparative method'. It was assumed that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process from the most primitive to most advanced. Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary 'living fossils' that could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations which were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful. It was during this time that Europeans first accurately traced [[polynesia|Polynesian]] migrations across the [[Pacific Ocean]] for instance - although some of them believed it originated in [[Egypt]]. Finally, the concept of [[race]] was actively discussed as a way to classify - and rank - human beings based on inherent biological difference. In the twentieth century academic disciplines began to organize around three main domains. The "[[sciences]]" seeks to derive natural laws through reproducible and falsifiable experiments. The "[[humanities]]" reflected an attempt to study different national traditions, in the form of [[history]] and the [[art]]s, as an attempt to provide people in emerging nation-states with a sense of coherence. The "[[social sciences]]" emerged at this time as an attempt to develop scientific methods to address social phenomena, in an attempt to provide a universal basis for social knowledge. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains. Drawing on the methods of the [[natural science]]s as well as developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews but unstructured "participant-observation" – and drawing on the new [[theory of evolution]] through [[natural selection]], they proposed the scientific study of a new object: "humankind," conceived of as a whole. Crucial to this study is the concept "culture," which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they see as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes Homo sapiens – and perhaps all species of genus ''[[Hominoid|Homo]]'' – from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions that takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices. Thus, "culture" not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture; it transcends and absorbs the peculiarly European distinction between politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains. Anthropology thus transcends the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms. ==Anthropology in the U.S.== Anthropology in the United States was pioneered by staff of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of American Ethnology, such as John Wesley Powell and Frank Hamilton Cushing. Academic Anthropology was established by [[Franz Boas]], who used his positions at [[Columbia University]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]] to train and develop multiple generations of students. Boasian anthropology was politically active and suspicious of research dictated by the U.S. government or wealthy patrons. It was also rigorously empirical and skeptical of over-generalizations and attempts to establish universal laws. Boas studied immigrant children in order to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable and that human conduct and behavior was the result of nurture rather than nature. Drawing on his German roots, he argued that the world was full of distinct 'cultures' rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little 'civilization' they had. Boas felt that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations like those made in the [[natural science]]s were not possible. In doing so Boas fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans. Many American anthropologists adopted Boas' agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today. Boas's first generation of students included [[Alfred Kroeber]], [[Robert Lowie]], [[Edward Sapir]] and [[Ruth Benedict]]. All of these scholars produced richly detailed studies which described Native North America. In doing so they provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages also helped establish [[linguistics]] as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on [[Indo-European languages]]. The publication of [[Alfred Kroeber]]'s textbook ''Anthropology'' marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material the urge to generalize grew. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as [[Margaret Mead]] and [[Ruth Benedict]]. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists such as [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]], these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. While such works as ''Coming of Age in Samoa'' and ''The Chrysanthemum and the Sword'' remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by [[Ralph Linton]] and Mead was limited to her offices at the [[American Museum of Natural History|AMNH]]. ==Anthropology in Britain== Whereas Boas picked his opponents to pieces through attention to detail, in Britain modern anthropology was formed by rejecting historical reconstruction in the name of a science of society that focused on analyzing how societies held together in the present. The two most important names in this tradition were [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] and [[Bronislaw Malinowski]], both of whom released seminal works in 1922. Radcliffe-Brown's initial fieldwork in the [[Andaman Islands]] was carried out in the old style, but after reading [[Émile Durkheim]] he published an account of his research (entitled simply ''The Andaman Islanders'') which drew heavily on the French sociologist. Over time he developed an approach known as structural-functionalism, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. [[Bronislaw Malinowski|Malinowski]], on the other hand, advocated an unhyphenated 'functionalism' which examined how society functioned to meet individual needs. Malinowski is best known not for his theory, however, but for his detailed [[ethnography]] and advances in methodology. His classic ''Argonauts of the Western Pacific'' advocated getting 'the native's point of view' and an approach to field work that became standard in the field. Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's success stem from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions which furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for 'Social Anthropology' by teaching at universities across the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. From the late 1930s until the post-war period a string of monographs and edited volumes appeared which cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology. Famous ethnographies include ''The Nuer'' by [[Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard]] and ''The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi'' by [[Meyer Fortes]], while well known edited volumes include ''African Systems of Kinship and Marriage'' and ''African Political Systems''. ==Anthropology in France== Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions. Most commentators consider [[Marcel Mauss]] to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss was a member of [[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim's]] [[Annee Sociologique]] group, and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as [[Henri Hubert]] and [[Robert Hertz]]) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. In particular, Mauss's ''Essay on the Gift'' was to prove of enduring relevance in anthropological studies of [[trade|exchange]] and [[reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]]. Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as [[surrealism]] and [[primitivism (art movement)|primitivism]] which drew on ethnography for inspiration. [[Marcel Griaule]] and [[Michel Leiris]] are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as ''ethnologie'' was restricted to museums, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of [[folklore]]. Above all, however, it was [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] who helped institutionalize anthropology in France. In addition to the enormous influence his [[structuralism]] exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as [[Maurice Godelier]] and [[Francoise Heritier]] who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally-funded research laboratories rather than academic departments in universities. ==Anthropology after World War Two== Before [[World War II|WWII]] British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. It was after the war that the two would blend to create a 'sociocultural' anthropology. In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the [[natural science]]s. Some, such as [[Lloyd Fallers]] and [[Clifford Geertz]], focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as [[Julian Steward]] and [[Leslie White]] focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche - an approach popularized by [[Marvin Harris]]. [[Economic anthropology]] as influenced by [[Karl Polanyi]] and practiced by [[Marshall Sahlins]] and [[George Dalton]] focused on how traditional [[economics]] ignored cultural and social factors. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as [[Max Gluckman]] and [[Peter Worsley]] experimented with Marxism and authors such as [[Rodney Needham]] and [[Edmund Leach]] incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work. Structuralism also influenced a number of development in 1960s and 1970s, including [[cognitive anthropology]] and componential analysis. Authors such as [[David Schneider]], [[Clifford Geertz]], and [[Marshall Sahlins]] developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the [[Algerian War of Independence]] and opposition to the [[Vietnam War]]; [[Marxism]] became a more and more popular theoretical approach in the discipline. By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as ''Reinventing Anthropology'' worried about anthropology's relevance. In the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in [[Eric Wolf]]'s ''Europe and the People Without History'' - were central to the discipline. Books like ''Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter'' pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as [[Antonio Gramsci]] and [[Michel Foucault]] moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became a popular topic, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by [[Marshall Sahlins]] (again) who drew on [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Fernand Braudel]] to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency. In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as [[George Marcus]] and [[James Clifford]] pondered ethnographic authority, particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. Ethnographies became more reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology and cultural positioning, and its influence on their ethnographic analysis. This was part of a more general trend of [[postmodernism]] that was popular contemporaneously. Currently anthropologists have begun to pay attention to globalization, medicine and biotechnology, indigenous rights, and the anthropology of Europe. ==Politics of anthropology== Anthropology's traditional involvement with nonwestern cultures has involved it in politics in many different ways. Some political problems arise simply because anthropologists usually have more power than the people they study. Some have argued that the discipline is a form of colonialist theft in which the anthropologist gains power at the expense of subjects. The anthropologist, they argue, can gain yet more power by exploiting knowledge and artifacts of the people he studies while the people he studies gain nothing, or even lose, in the exchange. An example of this exploitative relationship can been seen in the collaboration in Africa prior to World War II of British anthropologists (such as Fortes) and colonial forces. More recently, there have been newfound concerns about bioprospecting, along with struggles for self-representation for native peoples and the repatriation of indigenous remains and material culture. Other political controversies come from American anthropology's emphasis on cultural relativism and its long-standing antipathy to the concept of race. The development of [[sociobiology]] in the late 1960s was opposed by cultural anthropologists such as [[Marshall Sahlins]], who argued that these positions were reductive. While authors such John Randal Baker continued to develop the biological concept of race into the 1970s, the rise of genetics has proven to be central to developments on this front. Recently, [[Kevin B. MacDonald]] criticized Boasian anthropology as part of a "Jewish strategy to facilitate mass immigration and to weaken the West" ([[The Culture of Critique]],2002). As genetics continues to advance as a science some anthropologists such as Luca [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have continued to transform and advance notions of race through the use of recent developments in genetics, such as tracing past migrations of peoples through their mitcochondial and Y-chromosomal DNA, and [[ancestry-informative marker]]s. Finally, anthropology has a history of entanglement with government intelligence agencies and anti-war politics. Boas publicly objected to US participation in [[World War I]] and the collaboration of some anthropologists with US intelligence. In contrast, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the war effort in some form, including dozens who served in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the Office of War Information. In the 1950s, the [[American Anthropological Association]] provided the [[CIA]] information on the area specialities of its members, and a number of anthropologists participated in the U.S. government's [[Operation Camelot]] during the war in Vietnam. At the same time, many other anthropologists were active in the antiwar movement and passed resolutions in the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA) condemning anthropological involvement in covert operations. Anthropologists were also vocal in their opposition to the war in Iraq, although there was no consensus amongst practitioners of the discipline. Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the [[state]]. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The British Association for Social Anthropology has called certain scholarships ethically dangerous. For example, the British Association for Social Anthropology has condemned the [[CIA]]'s Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars Program[http://avenue.org/ngic/about_prisp.htm], which funds anthropology students at US universities in preparation for them to spy for the [[United States]] government. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." Anthropology is the study of human diversity--diversity of body and behavior, in the past and present. Anthropology consists of four subfields or subdisciplines: '''Physical anthropology'''--studies the diversity of the human body in the past and present. It includes how we acquired the structure of our body over time, that is human evolution, as well as differences and relationships between human populations today and their adaptations to their local environments. It also sometimes includes the evolution and diversity of our nearest relatives, the primates (apes and monkeys). '''Cultural anthropology'''--studies the diversity of human behavior in the present. This is what most anthropologists do and what most of the public sees when they look at "National Geographic" magazine or the "Discovery" channel on TV. Cultural anthropologists travel to foreign societies (although it is possible to do anthropology on your own society!), live among the people there, and try as much as they can to understand how those people live. '''Archaeology'''--studies the diversity of human behavior in the past. Since it studies how people lived in the past, these people are not available for us to visit and talk to...or at least, not people who are currently living in the same way that their ancestors did in the past. Therefore, archaeologists must depend on the artifacts and features that the people produced in the past and attempt to reconstruct their vanished way of life from the remnants of their culture. '''Linguistic anthropology'''--studies the diversity of human language in the past and present. While language is naturally a part of culture, it is such a huge topic that anthropologists have separated it into its own area of study. Linguistic anthropologists are concerned about the development of languages, perhaps even back to the first forms of language, and how language changes over time. They are also interested in how different contemporary languages differ today, how they are related, and how we can learn about things like migration and diffusion from that data. They also ask how language is related to and reflects on other aspects of culture. Other sciences study humans too, of course. History, economics, psychology, sociology, even biology and chemistry can study humans. How is anthropology different? The answer is the anthropological perspective, that is, the way that anthropology approaches the subject and thinks about or studies humans and their behavior. The anthropological perspective has three components: (1) Cross-cultural or comparative--anthropology investigates humans in every form that they take. We are interested to see the entire spectrum of human bodies and behaviors, trying to learn the range of humanity--all the ways that we can be human. By seeing humans in their every manifestation, and comparing those manifestations to each other, we can ask what is possible for humans and what is necessary for humans. (2) Holistic--anthropology tries to relate every part of culture to every other part. It understands that the various parts of culture are connected to each other and that certain combinations tend to occur or not to occur (for example, there are no hunting and gathering cultures that traditionally lived in cities...that's just impossible!). We are also interested in how a people's cultures is connected to their environment; again, without high technology, you are not going to see farming or cities in the middle of the desert or the arctic. (3) Relativistic--this is the most profound yet controversial part of the anthropological perspective. Relativism means that the rules or norms or values of a culture are relative to that specific culture. In other words, say, monogamy may be normal or preferred in one culture, but polygamy may be normal or preferred in another. The point is that different cultures believe different things or value different things or even mean different things with perhaps identical-looking behaviors or objects. When you go to another culture, or even just interact with another culture (for example, when you are doing international business), you cannot assume that other people understand things the same way you do. In fact, you should assume that they don't! Anthropology counsels against hasty judgement of a new culture: aspects that a Western visitor may find strange or distasteful can be understood when situated within that culture's history and cosmology (understanding of the world). There will be a rationality for the phenomenon; it may be 'rational', however, according to a cultural logic that conflicts with Western understandings. Malinowski's primacy of seeking to understand "the native point of view" remains fundamental to socio-cultural anthropology today. The point is that, if we want to understand other people properly, we must see what their behaviors or words or concepts mean to them, not what they would mean to us. Meaning is relative to the culture that creates that meaning. This is not to say that all things are true or even that all things are good - cultural relativism does not necessarily entail moral relativism. Indeed, the American Anthropological Association's qualified support (1948; 1997) for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as work by Sally Engle Merry, shows the latter is not a common anthropological point of view. How does anthropology study culture? One other way that anthropology is unique among the sciences that study humans is by its emphasis on 'fieldwork' You cannot get to know another culture just by reading about it or watching movies about it. At best, you could learn what other people have already discovered, but you could not learn anything new. So anthropology requires actually going to that society and living within their culture as much as possible. This is called [[Participant observation|participant observation]]. This depends crucially on finding (preferrably friendly) informants within the society, who will teach you their culture's rules of social behaviour, and include you in their activities. Then, as much as possible, you will try to eat their food, speak their language, and live their lives, often actually residing with a family in that society. It is not easy work, and it is not always fun, but there is no better way to learn. ==Anthropological fields and subfields== *[[Biological anthropology]] (also [[Physical anthropology]]) **[[Forensic anthropology]] **[[Paleoethnobotany]] *[[Cultural anthropology]] (also [[Social anthropology]]) **[[Anthropology of art]] **[[Applied anthropology]] **[[Cross-Cultural Studies]] **[[Cyber anthropology]] **[[Development anthropology]] **[[Dual inheritance theory]] **[[Environmental anthropology]] **[[Economic anthropology]] **[[Ecological anthropology]] **[[Ethnography]] **[[Ethnomusicology]] **[[Feminist anthropology]] **[[Gender]] **[[Human behavioral ecology]] **[[Medical anthropology]] **[[Psychological anthropology]] **[[Political anthropology]] **[[Anthropology of religion]] **[[Public anthropology]] **[[Urban anthropology]] **[[Visual anthropology]] *[[Anthropological linguistics|Linguistic anthropology]] **[[Descriptive linguistics|Synchronic linguistics]] (or Descriptive linguistics) **[[Diachronic linguistics]] (or [[Historical linguistics]]) **[[Ethnolinguistics]] **[[Sociolinguistics]] *[[Archaeology]] ==External links== *[http://www.aaanet.org/ The American Anthropological Association Homepage] - the webpage of the largest professional organization of anthropologists in the world. *[http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/09dbb3346fc1c2a4.html Race] - a book by John Randal Baker discussing the origins of racial classification and oppositions to the concept. *[http://www.antropologi.info Anthropology.Info] *[http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20001120&c=2&s=price Anthropologists as Spies] - an article by David Price examining the relationship between American Anthropology and US intelligence services. *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4603271.stm Pat Roberts Intelligence Program] - a BBC article on the program *[http://www.antropologi.info/blog/anthropology Social and Cultural Anthropology in the News] - (nearly) daily updated blog *[http://www.anthrobase.com Anthrobase.com] - Collection of anthropological texts *[http://www.cybercultura.it Cybercultura] - Collection of web resources about anthropology of cyberspace (in Italian) *[http://www.anthropology.net Anthropology.net] - A community orientated anthropology web portal with user run blogs, forums, tags, and a wiki. *[http://sscl.berkeley.edu/~afaweb/reviews/index.html Association for Feminist Anthropology] ==See also== * [[List of anthropologists]] * [[List of publications in biology#Anthropology|Important publications in anthropology]] <!--What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Anthropology, please refer to [[Anthropology basic topics]].--> [[Category:Anthropology|Anthropology]] [[Category:Mammalogy]] [[Category:Behavioural sciences]] {{Social sciences-footer}} [[af:Antropologie]] [[an:Antropolochía]] [[ar: علم الإنسان]] [[ast:Antropoloxía]] [[bg:Антропология]] [[bm:Anthropologie]] [[bn:নৃতত্ত্ববিদ্যা]] [[bs:Antropologija]] [[ca:Antropologia]] [[co:Antropologia]] [[cs:Antropologie]] [[da:Antropologi]] [[de:Anthropologie]] [[el:Ανθρωπολογία]] [[eo:Antropologio]] [[es:Antropología]] [[et:Antropoloogia]] [[fa:مردم‌شناسی]] [[fi:Antropologia]] [[fr:Anthropologie]] [[fy:Antropology]] [[gl:Antropoloxía]] [[he:אנתרופולוגיה]] [[hi:मानव शास्त्र]] [[hr:Antropologija]] [[hu:Antropológia]] [[ie:Antropologie]] [[io:Antropologio]] [[it:Antropologia]] [[ja:人類学]] [[ko:인류학]] [[ku:Antropolojî]] [[ky:Антропология]] [[lt:Antropologija]] [[lv:Antropoloģija]] [[mk:Антропологија]] [[ms:Antropologi]] [[nl:Antropologie]] [[no:Antropologi]] [[pl:Antropologia]] [[pt:Antropologia]] [[ro:Antropologie]] [[ru:Антропология]] [[sa:मानवविज्ञानं]] [[scn:Antropoluggia]] [[simple:Anthropology]] [[sk:Antropológia]] [[sl:Antropologija]] [[su:Antropologi]] [[sv:Antropologi]] [[ta:மனிதவியல்]] [[th:มานุษยวิทยา]] [[tl:Antropolohiya]] [[tpi:Antropoloji]] [[tr:Antropoloji]] [[uk:Антропологія]] [[zh-min-nan:Jîn-lūi-ha̍k]] [[zh:人类学]] Archaeology 570 41925879 2006-03-02T17:45:33Z Edgar181 491706 Revert to revision 41925705 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {{portal}}'''Archaeology''' or '''archeology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''αρχαίος'' = ancient and ''λόγος'' = word/speech/discourse) is the study of [[Homo (genus)|human]] [[culture]]s through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including [[architecture]], [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s, [[biofact]]s, human remains, and [[landscape]]s. The goals of archaeology are to document and explain the origins and development of human [[culture]], understand [[culture history]], chronicle [[cultural evolution]], and study human [[behavior]] and [[ecology]], for both [[prehistory|prehistoric]] and [[history|historic]] societies. It is considered to be one of the four sub-fields of [[anthropology]]. ==Usage== As with words such as [[encyclopedia]] and [[gynaecology]], archaeology traditionally has an ''ae'' combination; however, unlike other words, the ''ae'' is all but universally retained. Contrary to popular belief in other parts of the world, the spelling ''archeology'' is not predominant in [[United States]] [[dictionary|dictionaries]] and would look quite odd to most Americans. Like the claim that ''theater'' refers to a building and ''[[theatre]]'' refers to the [[performing arts]], the belief that ''archeology'' is an [[Americanism]] is little more than an [[urban myth]]. The traditional spelling, ''archaeology'', continues to be used in everyday writing throughout the world, including the U.S., even more so than theatre (the alternate spelling of which, while considered acceptable, is preferred less often than not). ==Ontology and definition== In the [[Old World]], archaeology has tended to focus on the study of physical remains, the methods used in recovering them and the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings in achieving the subject's goals. The discipline's roots in [[antiquarian]]ism and the study of [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]] provided it with a natural affinity with the field of [[history]]. In the [[New World]], archaeology is more commonly devoted to the study of human [[society|societies]] and is treated as one of the four subfields of [[Anthropology]]. The other subfields of [[anthropology]] supplement the findings of archaeology in a holistic manner. These subfields are [[cultural anthropology]], which studies behavioural, symbolic, and material dimensions of culture; [[linguistics]], which studies language, including the origins of language and language groups; and [[physical anthropology]], which includes the study of human evolution and physical and [[genetics|genetic]] characteristics. Other disciplines also supplement archaeology, such as [[paleontology]], [[paleozoology]], [[paleoethnobotany]], [[paleobotany]], [[geography]], [[geology]], [[art history]], and [[classics]]. Archaeology has been described as a [[craft]] that enlists the [[science|sciences]] to illuminate the [[humanities]]. Writing in 1948, the American archaeologist [[Walter Taylor]] asserted that "Archaeology is neither history nor anthropology. As an autonomous discipline, it consists of a method and a set of specialised techniques for the gathering, or 'production' of cultural information". Archaeology is an approach to understanding human culture through its material remains regardless of chronology. In [[England]], archaeologists have uncovered the long-lost layouts of medieval villages abandoned after the crises of the 14th century and the equally lost layouts of 17th century parterre gardens swept away by a change in fashion. In downtown [[New York City]] archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the Black burial ground. Traditional Archaeology is viewed as the study of pre-historical human cultures; that is cultures that existed before the development of [[writing]] for that culture. [[Historical archaeology]] is the study of post-[[writing]] cultures. In the study of relatively recent cultures, which have been observed and studied by Western scholars, archaeology is closely allied with [[ethnography]]. This is the case in large parts of [[North America]], [[Oceania]], [[Siberia]], and other places where the study of archaeology mingles with the living traditions of the cultures being studied. [[Kennewick Man]] is an example of archaeology interacting with modern culture. In the study of cultures that were literate or had literate neighbours, [[history]] and archaeology supplement one another for broader understanding of the complete cultural context, as at [[Hadrian's Wall]]. ==Importance and applicability== Most of human history is not described by any written records. [[Writing]] did not exist anywhere in the world until about 5000 years ago, and only spread among a relatively small number of technologically advanced [[civilisation]]s. In contrast [[Homo Sapiens|''Homo sapiens'']] have existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of [[Homo (genus)|''Homo'']] for millions of years (see [[Human evolution]]). These civilisations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they have been open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a civilisation that is literate at some levels, many important human practices are not officially recorded. Any knowledge of the formative early years of human civilisation - the development of [[agriculture]], cult practices of [[folk religion]], the rise of the first [[city|cities]] - must come from archaeology. Even where written records do exist, they are invariably incomplete or biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the [[elite]] classes, such as the [[clergy]] or the [[bureaucracy]] of court or temple. The literacy even of an [[aristocracy]] has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the rest of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into [[library|libraries]] and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases of the literate classes, and cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record is nearer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own inaccuracies, such as [[sampling bias]] and [[differential preservation]]. In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong [[aesthetic]] appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies. This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'', ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'', and ''[[King Solomon's Mines]]''. When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of [[pseudoscience]] are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology, below). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of the modern state of archaeology. ==Goals== There is still a tremendous emphasis in the practice of archaeology on field techniques and methodologies. These include the tasks of surveying areas in order to find new sites, digging sites in order to unearth the cultural remains therein, and classification and preservation techniques in order to analyse and keep these remains. Every phase of this process can be a source of information. The goals of archaeology are not always the same. There are at least three broad, distinct theories of exactly what archaeological research should do. (These are beyond the scope of the present discussion, and are discussed at length below.) Nevertheless, there is much common ground. ===Academic sub-disciplines=== ''Main article: [[Archaeological sub-disciplines]]'' As with most [[academia|academic]] disciplines, there are a very large number of [[archaeological sub-disciplines]] characterised by a specific method or type of material (e.g. [[lithic analysis]], [[music (archaeology)|music]], [[archaeobotany]]), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. [[Near Eastern archaeology]], [[Medieval archaeology]]), other thematic concern (e.g. [[landscape archaeology]]), or a specific [[archaeological culture]] or [[civilisation]] (e.g. [[Egyptology]]). ===Cultural resources management=== ''[[Cultural resources management]]'' (CRM) (also called ''heritage management'' in Britain) is a branch of archaeology that accounts for most research done in the [[United States]] and much of that in [[western Europe]] as well. In the United States, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the [[National Historic Preservation Act]] of 1966 and most of the archaeology done in that country today proceeds from either direct or related requirements of that measure. In the United States, the vast majority of taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped to preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, this mandates that no construction project on [[public land]] or involving public funds may damage an unstudied [[archaeological site]]. The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 [[PPG 16]] has required planners to consider archaeology as a [[material consideration]] in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organisations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense. Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of [[cultural]] sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavation indicates the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. CRM is a thriving entity, especially in the United States and Europe where archaeologists from private companies and all levels of government engage in the practice of their discipline. Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavour. ==Field methods== ===Survey=== A modern archaeological project often begins with a [[archaeological survey|survey]]. ''Regional survey'' is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. ''Site survey'' is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and [[midden|middens]], within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods. Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. [[Gordon Willey]] pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the [[Viru Valley]] of coastal [[Peru]], and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later. Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artefacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] methods.) It avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as [[settlement pattern|settlement patterns]] and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into [[map|maps]], which may show surface features and/or artefact distribution. The simplest survey technique is ''surface survey''. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanised transport, to search for features or artefacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as [[auger|augers]], [[corer|corers]], and [[shovel test]] pits. ''[[Aerial survey]]'' is conducted using [[camera|cameras]] attached to [[aircraft]], [[balloon|balloons]], or even [[kite|kites]]. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. [[Plant|Plants]] growing above a stone structure, such as a wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as [[midden|middens]]) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening [[cereal|grain]], which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial survey also employs [[infrared]], ground-penetrating [[radar]] wavelengths, and [[thermography]]. ''[[Geophysical survey]]'' is the most effective way to see beneath the ground. [[Magnetometer|Magnetometers]] detect minute deviations in the [[Earth's magnetic field]] caused by [[iron]] artefacts, [[kiln|kilns]], some types of [[stone structures]], and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the [[electrical resistivity]] of the soil are also widely used. Most soils are [[moisture|moist]] below the surface, which gives them a relatively low resistivity. Features such as hard-packed floors or concentrations of stone have a higher resistivity. Although some archaeologists consider the use of [[metal detector|metal detectors]] to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on [[English Civil War]] battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a nineteenth century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to the archaeological record where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the [[Portable Antiquities Scheme]]. Regional survey in maritime archaeology uses [[side-scan sonar]]. ===Excavation=== [[Excavation|Archaeological excavation]] existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context. Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their [[provenance]] or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see [[Primary Laws of Archaeology]]). Similarly, their [[archaeological association|association]], or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce what artefacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its [[stratigraphy]]; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct [[culture|cultures]], artefacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures. Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research. Also, as a destructive process, it carries [[ethics|ethical]] concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. [[Sampling (statistics)|Sampling]] is even more important in excavation than in survey. It is common for large mechanical equipment, such as [[backhoe]]s ([[J. C. Bamford|JCBs]]), to be used in excavation, especially to remove the [[topsoil]] ([[overburden]]), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent. The next task is to form a [[Archaeological plan|site plan]] and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural [[subsoil]] are normally excavated in portions in order to produce a visible [[archaeological section]] for recording. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the [[context]] of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site. ==Post-excavation analysis== Once artefacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them, to gain as much data as possible. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is normally the most time-consuming part of the archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for the final excavation reports on major sites to take years to be published. At its most basic, the artefacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections, in order to classify them [[typology|typologically]] and to identify other sites with similar artefact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through [[archaeological science]], meaning that artefacts can be dated and their compositions examined. The bones, plants and pollen collected from a site can all be analysed (using the techniques of [[zooarchaeology]], [[paleoethnobotany]], and [[palynology]]), while any texts can usually be [[Decipherment|deciphered]]. These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatly to the understanding of a site. ==History of archaeology== ''Main article: [[History of archaeology]]'' The history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation, and the use of an increasing range of techniques, to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible. Excavations of ancient monuments and the collection of antiquities have been taking place for thousands of years, but these were mostly for the extraction of valuable or aesthetically pleasing artefacts. It was only in the 19th century that the systematic study of the past through its physical remains began to be carried out. Archaeological methods were developed by both interested amateurs and professionals, including [[Augustus Pitt Rivers]] and [[William Flinders Petrie]]. This process was continued in the 20th century by such people as [[Mortimer Wheeler]], whose highly disciplined approach to excavation greatly improved the quality of evidence that could be obtained. During the 20th century, the development of [[urban archaeology]] and then [[rescue archaeology]] have been important factors, as has the development of [[archaeological science]], which has greatly increased the amount of data that it is possible to obtain. ==Archaeological theory== ''Main article: [[Archaeological theory]]'' There is no single theory of archaeology, and even definitions are disputed. Until the mid-20th century and the introduction of technology, there was a general consensus that archaeology was closely related to both history and anthropology. The first major phase in the history of archaeological theory is commonly referred to as '''[[Cultural-history archaeology|cultural, or culture, history]]''', which was developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1960s, a number of young, primarily American archaeologists, such as [[Lewis Binford]], rebelled against the paradigms of cultural history. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with [[hypothesis]] testing and the [[scientific method]] very important parts of what became known as '''[[processual archaeology]]'''. In the 1980s, a new movement arose led by the British archaeologists [[Michael Shanks (archaeologist)|Michael Shanks]], [[Christopher Tilley]], [[Daniel Miller]], and [[Ian Hodder]]. It questioned processualism's appeals to science and impartiality and emphasised the importance of relativism, becoming known as '''[[post-processual archaeology]]'''. However, this approach has been criticised by processualists as lacking scientific rigour. The validity of both processualism and post-procuessualism is still under debate. Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including [[evolution|neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought]], [[phenomenology]], [[postmodernism]], [[Structure and agency|agency theory]], [[Cognitive archaeology|cognitive science]], [[Functionalism (sociology)|Functionalism]], [[Gender archaeology|gender-based]] and [[Feminist archaeology]], and [[Systems theory in archaeology|Systems theory]]. ==Public archaeology== Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Such pursuits continue to fascinate the public, portrayed in books (such as ''[[King Solomon's Mines]]'') and films (such as ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'' and ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''). Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as [[Copán]] and the [[Valley of the Kings]], but the stuff of modern archaeology is not so reliably sensational. In addition, archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in modern [[archaeological survey|survey]], [[excavation]], and [[archaeological data processing|data processing]] techniques. Some archaeologists refer to such portrayals as "[[pseudoarchaeology]]". Nevertheless, archaeology has profited from its portrayal in the mainstream media. Many practitioners point to the childhood excitement of [[Indiana Jones]] films and [[Tomb Raider games]] as the inspiration for them to enter the field. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support, the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed. Without a strong public interest in the subject, often sparked by significant finds and celebrity archaeologists, it would be a great deal harder for archaeologists to gain the political and financial support they require. In the UK, popular archaeology programmes such as ''[[Time Team]]'' and ''[[Meet the Ancestors]]'' have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provision for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did. However, the move towards being more professional has meant that volunteer places are now relegated to unskilled labour, and even this is less freely available than before. Developer-funded excavation necessitates a well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately, observing the necessary [[health and safety]] and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern [[construction|building site]] with tight deadlines. Certain charities and [[local government]] bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial [[training excavations]] and archaeological holiday tours. Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies. Anyone looking to get involved in the field without having to pay to do so should contact a local group. ===Pseudoarchaeology=== ''Main article: [[Pseudoarchaeology]]''. Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of [[processual archaeology]], or the specific critiques of it contained in [[Post-processual archaeology|Post-processualism]]. An example of this type is the writing of [[Erich von Däniken]]. His ''[[Chariots of the Gods]]'' (1968), together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as [[palaeocontact theory]], is not exclusively Däniken's nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind. ===Looting=== Looting of archaeological sites by people in search of [[hoard|hoards]] of buried treasure is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian [[pharaoh|pharaohs]] were looted in antiquity. The advent of archaeology has made ancient sites objects of great scientific and public interest, but it has also attracted unwelcome attention to the works of past peoples. A brisk commercial demand for artefacts encourages looting and the [[illicit antiquities]] trade, which smuggles items abroad to private collectors. Looters damage the integrity of a historic site, deny archaeologists valuable information that would be learnt from excavation, and are often deemed to be robbing local people of their heritage. The popular consciousness often associates looting with poor [[Third World]] countries. Many are former homes to many well-known ancient civilizations but lack the financial resources or political will to protect even the most significant sites. Certainly, the high prices that intact objects can command relative to a poor farmer's income make looting a tempting financial proposition for some local people. However, looting has taken its toll in places as rich and populous as the United States and Western Europe as well. Abandoned towns of the ancient [[Sinagua]] people of [[Arizona]], clearly visible in the desert landscape, have been destroyed in large numbers by treasure hunters. Sites in more densely populated areas farther east have also been looted. Where looting is proscribed by law it takes place under cover of night, with the [[metal detector]] a common instrument used to identify profitable places to dig. ===Public outreach=== Motivated by a desire to halt '''looting''', curb '''pseudoarchaeology''', and to secure greater public funding and appreciation for their work, archaeologists are mounting '''public-outreach campaigns'''. They seek to stop looting by informing prospective artefact collectors of the provenance of these goods, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting and the danger that it poses to science and their own heritage. Common methods of public outreach include press releases and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation. The final audience for archaeologists' work is the public and it is increasingly realised that their work is ultimately being done to benefit and inform them. The putative social benefits of local heritage awareness are also being promoted with initiatives to increase civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects and better interpretation and presentation of existing sites. ===Descendant peoples=== In the United States, examples such as the case of [[Kennewick Man]] have illustrated the tensions between [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s and archaeologists which can be summarised as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towards burials sacred sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artefacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present. To an archaeologist, the past is long-gone and must be reconstructed through its material remains; to indigenous peoples, it is often still alive. As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]] (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of [[indigenous peoples]] likely to be descended from those under study. Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites in order to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study. While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession. ====Repatriation==== A new trend in the heated controversy between [[First Nations]] groups and scientists is the [[repatriation]] of native [[artifacts]] to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when a community members and elders from a number of the 10 [[Algonquian]] nations in the [[Ottawa]] area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation in [[Kanawagi, Quebec]], to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years. The ceremony marked the end of a journey spanning thousands of years and many miles. The remains and artifacts, including [[beads]], [[tools]] and [[weapons]], were originally excavated from various sites in the [[Ottawa Valley]], including [[Morrison]] and the [[Allumette Islands]]. They had been part of the [[Canadian Museum of Civilization]]’s research collection for decades, some since the late 1800s. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional [[redcedar]] and [[birchbark]] boxes lined with redcedar chips, [[muskrat]] and [[beaver pelts]]. Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 90 boxes of various sizes are buried. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement (source: [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/SO05/indepth/archaeology.asp Canadian Geographic Online]). ==See also== *[[List of significant archaeological discoveries]] *[[List of archaeological sites sorted by country]] *[[List of archaeologists]] *[[Biblical archaeology]] *[[List of archaeological periods]] *[[Prehistory]] ==External links== {{commonscat|Archaeology}} * [http://www.archeologia.be Archeologia belga] The Alphabetical of Archaeology. French Archaeology. * [http://www.archaeologynews.org Archaeology News] Current News and Information pertaining to all areas of archaeology, plus free news feeds for webmasters. *[http://www.northpacificprehistory.com North Pacific Prehistory] is an academic journal specialising in Northeast Asian and North American archaeology. * [http://nefer-seba.net/Archaeological-Fieldwork.php Excavation Sites] Archaeological work and volunteer pages. * [http://wasteflake.com/tiki-index.php?page=PopularArchaeology Archaeology in Popular Culture] * [http://www.anthropology-resources.org/ Anthropology Resources on the Internet] - Anthropology Resources on the Internet : a web directory, part of the WWW Virtual Library, with over 4000 links grouped in specialised topics. * [http://www.archaeology.org/ ''Archaeology'' magazine] published by the Archaeological Institute of America * [http://www.archaeologydirectory.com/ Archaeology Directory] - Directory of archaeological topics on the web. * [http://cctr.umkc.edu/user/fdeblauwe/iraq.html The 2003- Iraq War & Archaeology] Information about looting in Iraq. * [http://www.galilean-library.org/newarch.html Philosophy and the New Archaeology], an essay at the Galilean Library on the philosophical underpinnning of archaeology and the debate over the New Archaeology. * [http://www.african-archaeology.net/ WWW VL African Archaeology] - The african archaeology portal, part of the WWW Virtual Library : all the web sites relating to african archaeology are listed here. ==Further reading== * Ashmore, W. and Sharer, R. J., ''Discovering Our Past: A Brief Introduction to Archaeology'' Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 076741196X. This has also been used as a source. * Neumann, Thomas W. and Robert M. Sanford, ''Practicing Archaeology: A Training Manual for Cultural Resources Archaeology'' [http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/ Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc], August, 2001, hardcover, 450 pages, ISBN 0759100942 * Renfrew, Colin & Bahn, Paul G., ''Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice'', Thames and Hudson, 4th edition, 2004. ISBN 0500284415 * Sanford, Robert M. and Thomas W. Neumann, ''Cultural Resources Archaeology: An Introduction'', [http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/ Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc], December, 2001, trade paperback, 256 pages, ISBN 0759100950 * Trigger, Bruce. 1990. "A History of Archaeological Thought". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521338182 [[Category:Anthropology]] [[Category:Archaeology]] [[Category:Humanities occupations]] [[Category:Social sciences]] [[af:Argeologie]] [[als:Archäologie]] [[ar:علم الآثار]] [[an:Arquiolochía]] [[bg:Археология]] [[bn:প্রত্নতত্ত্ববিদ্যা]] [[bs:Arheologija]] [[ca:Arqueologia]] [[ceb:Arkeyolohiya]] [[cs:Archeologie]] [[cy:Archaeoleg]] [[da:Arkæologi]] [[de:Archäologie]] [[et:Arheoloogia]] [[el:Αρχαιολογία]] [[es:Arqueología]] [[eo:Arkeologio]] [[eu:Arkeologia]] [[fa:باستان‌شناسی]] [[fr:Archéologie]] [[fur:Archeologjie]] [[gl:Arqueoloxía]] [[ko:고고학]] [[hr:Arheologija]] [[io:Arkeologio]] [[id:Arkeologi]] [[ia:Archeologia]] [[is:Fornleifafræði]] [[it:Archeologia]] [[he:ארכאולוגיה]] [[ka:არქეოლოგია]] [[csb:Archeòlogijô]] [[ky:Археология]] [[sw:Akiolojia]] [[lad:Arkeolojiya]] [[la:Archaeologia]] [[lv:Arheoloģija]] [[lt:Archeologija]] [[lb:Archeologie]] [[li:Archeologie]] [[hu:Régészet]] [[mk:Археологија]] [[ms:Arkeologi]] [[nl:Archeologie]] [[ja:考古学]] [[no:Arkeologi]] [[nn:Arkeologi]] [[pl:Archeologia]] [[pt:Arqueologia]] [[ro:Arheologie]] [[ru:Археология]] [[sco:Airchaeologie]] [[sq:Arkeologjia]] [[scn:Archioluggìa]] [[simple:Archaeology]] [[sk:Archeológia]] [[sl:Arheologija]] [[sr:Археологија]] [[su:Arkéologi]] [[fi:Arkeologia]] [[sv:Arkeologi]] [[tl:Arkeolohiya]] [[ta:தொல்பொருளியல்]] [[th:โบราณคดี]] [[vi:Khảo cổ học]] [[tr:Kazıbilim]] [[uk:Археологія]] [[vo:Vönotav]] [[zh:考古学]] Anomalous Phenomena 571 15899102 2003-04-03T17:08:05Z Michael Hardy 4626 #REDIRECT [[Anomalous_phenomenon]] Agricultural science 572 40369957 2006-02-20T02:43:30Z Ceyockey 150564 Disambiguate [[GMO]] to [[Genetically modified organism]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] '''Agricultural science''' is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic, and [[social sciences]] that are used in the practice and understanding of [[agriculture]]. ([[veterinary medicine|Veterinary science]], but not [[animal science]], is often excluded from the definition.) ==Agriculture and agricultural science == The two terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts: :Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. :Agronomy is [[research and development]] related to studying and improving plant-based agriculture. Agricultural sciences include research and development on: * Production techniques (e.g., [[irrigation]] management, recommended [[nitrogen]] inputs) * Improving [[agricultural productivity|production]] in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of [[drought]]-resistant crops and animals, development of new [[pesticide]]s, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro [[cell culture]] techniques) * Transformation of primary products into end-[[consumer]] products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of [[dairy product]]s) * Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., [[soils retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], [[waste management]], [[bioremediation]]) * [[Theoretical production ecology]], relating to crop production modeling * [[traditional agricultural systems]] such as which serve to feed most people in the world and which often retain integration with nature in a way that hs proven more sustainable than modern systems * Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers of China and India. == Agricultural science: a local science == With the exception of [[theoretical production ecology|theoretical agronomy]], research in agronomy, more than in any other field, is strongly related to local areas. It can be considered a science of [[ecoregions]], because it is closely linked to soil properties and [[climate]], which are never exactly the same from one place to another. Many people think an agricultural production system relying on local weather, [[soil]] characteristics, and specific crops has to be studied locally. Others feel a need to know and understand production systems in as many areas as possible, and the human dimension of interation with nature. == History of agricultural science == ''Main Article: [[History of agricultural science]]'' Agricultural science is seen by some to have began with [[Mendel]]'s insightful genetc work, but in modern terms might be better dated from the [[chemical fertilizer]] outputs of [[plant physiological]] understanding in eighteenth century [[Germany]]. Today it is very different from what it was even in 1950. Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and [[developing countries]], often referred to as the [[Green Revolution]], was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial [[fertilizer]]s and [[pesticide|phytosanitary product]]s. As the oldest and largest human intervention in nature, the environmental impact of agriculture in general and more recently [[intensive agriculture]], industrial development, and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields. These include technological fields that assume the solution to technological problems lies in better technology, such as [[integrated pest management]], [[waste management|waste treatment]] technologies, [[landscape architecture]], [[genomics]], and [[agricultural philosophy]] fields that include references to food production as something essentially different from non-essential eeconomic 'goods'. In fact, the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science. New technologies, such as [[biotechnology]] and [[computer science]] (for data processing and storage), and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including [[genetic engineering]], [[agrophysics]], improved [[statistics|statistical analysis]], and [[precision farming]]. Balancing these, as above, are the natural and human sciences of agricultural science that seek to understand the human-nature interactions of [[traditional agriculture]], including interaction of [[religion and agriculture]], and the non-material components of agricultural production systems. === Prominent agricultural scientists === * [[Norman Borlaug]] * [[Luther Burbank]] * [[Louis Pasteur]] * [[Gregor Mendel]] * [[Rene Dumont|René Dumont]] * [[George Washington Carver]] == Agricultural science and agriculture crisis== Agriculture sciences seek to feed the world's population while preventing [[biosafety]] problems that may affect human health and the [[Natural environment|environment]]. This requires promoting good management of [[natural resources]] and respect for the environment, and increasingly concern for the psychological wellbeing of all concerned in the food production and consumption system. Economic, environmental, and social aspects of agriculture sciences are subjects of ongoing debate. Recent crises (such as Avian Flu, [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] and issues such as the use of [[genetically modified organism]]s) illustrate the complexity and importance of this debate. == Fields of agricultural science == * [[Agricultural engineering]] * [[Agricultural philosophy]] * [[Biosystems engineering]] * [[Aquaculture]] * [[Agronomy]] and [[Horticulture]] * [[Agrophysics]] * [[Livestock|Animal science]] * Plant [[fertilizer|fertilization]], [[animal nutrition|animal]] and [[human nutrition]] * Plant protection and animal health * [[Soil science]], especially [[edaphology]]. * [[hydrology|water science]] * [[Agricultural biotechnology|Biotechnology]], [[genetic engineering]], and [[microbiology]] * Farming equipment * [[Irrigation]] and [[water management]] * Agricultural [[economics]] * [[Food science]] * [[Environmental science]] and [[environmental engineering|engineering]] * [[Waste management]] * [[Ecology]] and [[Natural environment|environment]] * [[Theoretical production ecology]] == See also == *[[Agricultural sciences basic topics]] *[[Agrology]] *[[Agronomy]] *[[History of agricultural science]] [[Category:Agriculture]] [[Category:Agronomy|*]] [[Category:Soil science]] [[bg:Аграрни науки]] [[da:Agronomi]] [[de:Agrarwissenschaft]] [[fr:Agronomie]] [[id:Agronomi]] [[it:Agronomia]] [[he:אגרונומיה]] [[nl:Landbouwkunde]] [[ja:農学]] [[pl:Agronomia]] [[fi:Maataloustiede]] [[sv:Agronomi]] [[th:เกษตรศาสตร์]] [[zh:农学]] Alchemy 573 move=:edit= 42147983 2006-03-04T03:23:08Z Silence 84942 /* Alchemy in Medieval Europe */ {{featured article}} {{Otheruses}} [[Image:Alchemist's Laboratory, Heinrich Khunrath, Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae, 1595 c.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Alchemist's laboratory, by Hans Vredman de Vries, c 1595.]] '''Alchemy''' is an early [[protoscience|protoscientific]] and [[philosophy|philosophical]] discipline combining elements of [[chemistry]], [[metallurgy]], [[physics]], [[medicine]], [[astrology]], [[semiotics]], [[mysticism]], [[spiritualism]], and [[art]]. Alchemy has been practiced in ancient [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[India]], and [[China]], in [[Classical Antiquity|Classical]] [[Greece]] and [[Rome]], in the [[Caliphate|Islamic empire]], and then in [[Europe]] up to the 19th century &mdash; in a complex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years. Western alchemy has always been closely connected with [[Hermeticism]], a philosophical and spiritual system that traces its roots to [[Hermes Trismegistus]], a [[syncretism|syncretic]] Egyptian-Greek deity and legendary alchemist. These two disciplines influenced the birth of [[Rosicrucianism]], an important esoteric movement of the 17th century. In the 19th century, as mainstream alchemy evolved into modern chemistry, its mystic and Hermetic aspects became the focus of a modern [[spiritual alchemy]], where material manipulations are viewed as mere symbols of spiritual transformations. The alchemists did not follow what is now known as the [[scientific method]], and much of the "knowledge" they produced was later found to be banal, limited, wrong, or meaningless. Today, the discipline is of interest mainly to [[history of science|historians of science]] and [[history of philosophy|philosophy]], and for its mystic, [[esoterism|esoteric]], and artistic aspects. Nevertheless, alchemy was one of the main precursors of modern [[science]]s, and we owe to the ancient alchemists the discovery of many substances and processes that are the mainstay of modern chemical and metallurgical industries. ==Overview== [[Image:William Fettes Douglas - The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The alchemist - by Sir [[William Fettes Douglas]].]] === Alchemy as a proto-science === The common perception of alchemists is that they were [[pseudoscience|pseudo-scientists]], [[crackpot]]s and [[charlatans]], who attempted to turn [[lead]] into [[gold]], believed that the universe was composed of the [[classical element|four elements]] of earth, air, fire, and water, and spent most of their time concocting miraculous [[medication|remedies]], [[poison]]s, and [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] [[potion]]s. This picture is rather unfair. Although many alchemists were indeed crackpots and charlatans, many were well-meaning and intelligent scholars, who were simply struggling to make sense of a subject which, as we now know, was far beyond the reach of their tools. These people were basically "proto-scientists", who attempted to explore and investigate the nature of chemical substances and processes. They had to rely on unsystematic experimentation, traditional know-how, [[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]], &mdash; and plenty of speculative thought to fill in the wide gaps in existing knowledge. Given these conditions, the mystic character of alchemy is quite understandable: to the early alchemist, chemical transformations could only seem like magical phenomena governed by incomprehensible laws, whose potential and limitations he had no way of knowing. Having discovered that a specific procedure could turn an earth-like ore into glistening metal, it was only natural to speculate that some different procedure could turn a metal into another. At the same time, it was clear to the alchemists that "something" was generally being conserved in chemical processes, even in the most dramatic changes of physical state and appearance; i.e. that substances contained some "principles" that could be hidden under many outer forms, and revealed by proper manipulation. Throughout the history of the discipline, alchemists struggled very hard to understand the nature of these principles, and find some order and sense in the results of their chemical experiments &mdash; which were often undermined by impure or poorly characterized reagents, the lack of quantitative measurements, and confusing and inconsistent nomenclature. In spite of those difficulties, and of many false turns and loops, the alchemists managed to make steady progress in the understanding of the natural world. To them we owe the discovery of many important substances and chemical processes, which paved the way for the modern science of chemistry, and are still the mainstay of today's chemical and metallurgical industries. === Alchemy as a philosophical and spiritual discipline === The best known goals of the [[alchemist]]s were the [[transmutation]] of common metals into [[gold]] or [[silver]], and the creation of a "[[universal panacea|panacea]]", a remedy that supposedly would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely. Starting with the Middle Ages, European alchemists invested much effort on the search for the "[[philosopher's stone]]", a mythical substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. Alchemists enjoyed prestige and support through the centuries, though not for their pursuit of those unattainable goals, nor the mystic and philosophical speculation that dominates their literature. Rather it was for their mundane contributions to the "chemical" industries of the day &mdash; ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of ink, dyes, paints, and cosmetics, leather tanning, ceramics and glass manufacture, preparation of extracts and liquors, and so on. (It seems that the preparation of ''[[aqua vitae]]'', the "water of life", was a fairly popular "experiment" among European alchemists.) On the other hand, alchemists never had the intellectual tools nor the motivation to separate the physical (chemical) aspects of their craft from the metaphysical interpretations. Indeed, from antiquity until well into the [[Modern Age]], a physics devoid of metaphysical insight would have been as unsatisfying as a metaphysics devoid of physical manifestation. For one thing, the lack of common words for chemical concepts and processes, as well as the need for secrecy, led alchemists to borrow the terms and symbols of [[Bible|biblical]] and [[Paganism|pagan]] [[mythology]], [[astrology]], [[kabbalah]], and other mystic and [[esoterism|esoteric]] fields; so that even the plainest chemical recipe ended up reading like an abstruse magic incantation. Moreover, alchemists sought in those fields the theoretical frameworks into which they could fit their growing collection of disjointed experimental facts. Starting with the middle ages, some alchemists increasingly came to view these metaphysical aspects as the true foundation of alchemy; and chemical substances, physical states, and material processes as mere metaphors for spiritual entities, states and transformations. Thus, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented some mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented some hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]]s, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laborously "decoded" in order to discover their true meaning. Some humanistic scholars now see these spiritual and metaphysical allegories as the truest and most valuable aspect of alchemy, and even claim that the development of chemistry out of alchemy was a "corruption" of the original Hermetic tradition. This is the view espoused by contemporary practitioners of [[spiritual alchemy]]. Most scientists, on the other hand, tend to take quite the opposite view: to them, the path from the material side of alchemy to modern chemistry was the "straight road" in the evolution of the discipline, while the metaphysically oriented brand of alchemy was a "wrong turn" that led to nowhere. In either view, however, the naïve interpretations of some practitoners or the fraudulent hopes fostered by others should not diminish the contribution of the more sincere alchemists. ===Alchemy and astrology=== Since its earliest times, alchemy has been closely connected to [[astrology]] &mdash; which, in Islam and Europe, generally meant the traditional [[Babylon]]ian-Greek school of astrology. Alchemical systems often postulated that each of the seven [[planet]]s known to the ancients "[[astrological sign|ruled]]" or was associated with a certain [[metal]]. See the separate article on [[astrology and alchemy]] for further details. ===Alchemy in the age of science=== Up to the 18th century, alchemy was actually considered serious science in Europe; for instance, [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his time and writing to the study of alchemy than he did to either optics or physics, for which he is famous, (see [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]]). Other eminent alchemists of the Western world are [[Roger Bacon]], Saint [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Tycho Brahe]], [[Thomas Browne]], and [[Parmigianino]]. The decline of alchemy began in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the universe based on rational materialism. In the first half of the nineteenth century, one established chemist, Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]], researched on concepts similar to the old alchemy, such as the [[Odic force]], but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. Matter transmutation, the old goal of alchemy, enjoyed a moment in the sun in the 20th century when physicists were able to convert lead atoms into gold atoms via a [[nuclear reaction]]. However, the new gold atoms, being unstable [[isotope]]s, lasted for under five seconds before they broke apart. More recently, reports of table-top element transmutation — by means of [[electrolysis]] or [[sonic cavitation]] — were the pivot of the [[cold fusion]] controversy of 1989. None of those claims have yet been reliably duplicated. Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used in the 20th century by [[psychology|psychologists]] and philosophers. [[Carl Jung]] reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical work as a [[spirituality|spiritual]] path. Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in [[post-modernism|post-modern]] contexts, such as the [[New Age]] movement. Even some physicists have played with alchemical ideas in books such as ''[[The Tao of Physics]]'' and ''[[The Dancing Wu Li Masters]]''. ===Alchemy as a subject of historical research === The history of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field. As the obscure&mdash;''hermetic'', of course&mdash;language of the alchemists is gradually being "deciphered", historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, [[kabbala|kabbalism]], [[spiritualism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], and other mystic movements, [[cryptography]], [[witchcraft]]&mdash;and, of course, the evolution of [[science]] and [[philosophy]]. ==Etymology== {{Wiktionarypar|alchemy}} The word ''alchemy'' comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''al-k&#299;miya&#704;'' or ''al-kh&#299;miya&#704;'' (&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1610;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1569; or &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1610;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1569;), which might be formed from the article ''al-'' and the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''chumeia'' (&chi;η&mu;&epsilon;&#943;&alpha;) meaning "cast together", "pour together", "weld", "alloy", etc. (from ''khumatos'', "that which is poured out, an ingot", or from Persian ''Kimia'' meaning "gold." A decree of [[Diocletian]], written about 300 CE in Greek, speaks against "the ancient writings of the Egyptians, which treat of the ''kh&#275;mia'' [transmutation] of gold and silver". It has been suggested that the Arabic word ''al-k&#299;miya&#704;'' actually means "the Egyptian [science]", borrowing from the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] word for "Egypt", ''k&#275;me'' (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval [[Bohairic]] dialect of Coptic, ''kh&#275;me''). The Coptic word derives from [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]] ''km&#7881;'', itself from ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ''kmt''. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "Black Land", by contrast with the "Red Land", the surrounding desert); so this etymology could also explain the nickname "Egyptian black arts". However, this theory may be just an example of [[folk etymology]]. ==History== [[Image:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png|thumb|right|300px|Extract and symbol key from a 17th century book on alchemy. The symbols used have a one-to-one correspondence with symbols used in [[astrology]] at the time.]] Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least two major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: [[Chinese alchemy]], centered in [[China]] and its zone of cultural influence; and [[Western alchemy]], whose center has shifted over the millennia between [[Egypt]], [[Greece]] and [[Rome]], the [[Islam]]ic world, and finally back to [[Europe]]. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoism]], whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system, with only superficial connections to the major Western religions. It is still an open question whether these two strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. ===Alchemy in Ancient Egypt=== The origin of western alchemy may generally be traced to [[Ancient Egypt|ancient (pharaonic) Egypt]]. [[Metallurgy]] and [[mysticism]] were inexorably tied together in the ancient world, as the transformation of drab ore into shining metal must have seemed to be an act of magic governed by mysterious rules. It is claimed therefore that Alchemy in ancient Egypt was the domain of the priestly class. Egyptian alchemy is known mostly through the writings of ancient (Hellenic) [[Greece|Greek]] philosophers, which in turn have often survived only in Islamic translations. Practically no original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived. Those writings, if they existed, were likely lost when the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Diocletian]] ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (292), which had been a center of Egyptian alchemy. Nevertheless [[archaeological]] expeditions in recent times have unearthed evidence of chemical analysis during the [[Naqada]] periods. For example, a [[copper]] tool dating to the [[Naqada]] era bears evidence of having been used in such a way (reference: artifact 5437 on display at [http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/naqada/tombs/finds7.html]). Also, the process of [[tanning]] [[animal]] [[Rawhide|skins]] was already known in [[Predynastic Egypt]] as early as the [[6th millennium BC]] [http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm]; although it possibly was discovered haphazardly. Other evidence indicates early alchemists in [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]] had invented [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] by [[4000 BC]] and [[glass]] by [[1500 BC]]. The chemical reaction involved in the production of [[Calcium Oxide]] is one of the oldest known (references: [[Calcium Oxide]], [[limekiln]]): :CaCO<sub>3</sub> + heat → CaO + CO<sub>2</sub>. [[Ancient Egypt]] additionally produced [[cosmetics]], [[cement]], [[faience]] and also [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] for [[shipbuilding]]. [[Papyrus]] had also been invented by [[3000 BC]]. Legend has it that the founder of Egyptian alchemy was the [[deity|god]] [[Thoth]], called Hermes-Thoth or Thrice-Great Hermes (''[[Hermes Trismegistus]]'') by the Greek. According to legend, he wrote what were called the forty-two Books of Knowledge, covering all fields of knowledge—including alchemy. Hermes's symbol was the [[caduceus]] or serpent-staff, which became one of many of alchemy's principal symbols. The "[[Emerald Tablet]]" or ''[[Hermetica]]'' of Thrice-Great Hermes, which is known only through Greek and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] translations, is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the [[hermeticism|hermetic philosophy]] by its early practitioners. The first point of the "Emerald Tablet" tells the purpose of hermetical science: "in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing." {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 196-7|a}} This is the [[macrocosm]]-[[microcosm]] belief central to the hermetic philosophy. In other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected by the exterior world (the macrocosm), which includes the heavens through [[astrology]], and the earth through the [[classical element|element]]s. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt,p. 34-42|b}} It has been speculated that a riddle from the Emerald Tablet—"it was carried in the womb by the wind"—refers to the distillation of oxygen from [[sodium nitrate|saltpeter]]—a process that was unknown in Europe until its (re)discovery by Sendivogius in the 17th century. In the 4th century BC, the Greek-speaking [[Macedon|Macedonia]]ns conquered Egypt and founded the city of Alexandria in 332. This brought them into contact with Egyptian ideas. See [[#Alchemy in the Greek world|Alchemy in the Greek World]] below. ===Chinese alchemy=== Whereas Western alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The [[philosopher's stone]] of European alchemists can be compared to the [[Elixir of life|Grand Elixir of Immortality]] sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the [[universal panacea]]; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than it initially appears. [[Black powder]] may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. Described in 9th century texts and used in [[fireworks]] by the 10th Century, it was used in [[cannon]]s by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to [[Japan]], the [[Mongol]]s, the Arab world and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe starting with the 14th century. Black powder was most likely invented in the middle east before it found its way to China. Saltpeter, the critical oxidising component, was found naturally in India and along the Salt trade routes in the Middle East. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of [[traditional Chinese medicine|medicine]], such as [[Acupuncture]] and [[Moxibustion]], and to [[martial arts]] such as [[Tai Chi Chuan]] and [[Kung Fu]] (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the Hygienic or Philosophical branches of Taoism, not the Alchemical). ===Indian alchemy=== Little is known in the West about the character and history of [[India]]n alchemy. An 11th century [[Iran|Persia]]n alchemist named [[al-Biruni]] reported that they "have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which is called [[Rasavātam]]. It means the art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs, compounds, and medicines, most of which are taken from plants. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age." The best example of a text based on this science is ''The Vaishashik Darshana'' of [[Kanad]]a (fl. 600 BC), who described an atomic theory over a century before Democritus. The texts of [[Ayurvedic]] Medicine and Science have aspects related to alchemy, such having cures for all known diseases. The similarities in [[Ayurveda]] and alchemy are that both had methods used to treat people by putting oils over them. Some people have also noted certain similarities between the [[metaphysics]] of the [[Samkhya]] philosophical tradition of Hinduism and the metaphysics of alchemy. Whether there is any direct connection between the two systems is an open question. The Rasavadam was understood by very few people at the time. Two famous examples were Nagarjunacharya and Nityanadhiya. Nagarjunacharya was a buddhist monk who, in ancient times, ran the great university of Nagarjuna Sagar. His famous book, Rasaratanakaram, is a famous example of early Indian medicine. In traditional Indian medicinal terminology 'rasa' translates as 'mercury' and Nagarjunacharya was said to have developed a method to convert the mercury into gold. Much of his original writings are lost to us, but his teachings still have strong influence on traditional Indian medicine (Ayureveda) to this day. ===Alchemy in the Greek world=== The Greek city of [[Alexandria]] in Egypt was a center of Greek alchemical knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. The Greeks appropriated the hermetical beliefs of the Egyptians and melded with them the philosophies of [[Pythagoras|Pythagoreanism]], [[ionianism]], and [[gnosticism]]. Pythagorean philosophy is, essentially, the belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from the observations of sound, stars, and geometric shapes like triangles, or anything from which a [[ratio]] could be derived. [[Ionia]]n thought was based on the belief that the universe could be explained through concentration on [[phenomenon|natural phenomena]]; this philosophy is believed to have originated with [[Thales]] and his pupil [[Anaximander]], and later developed by [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], whose works came to be an integral part of alchemy. According to this belief, the universe can be described by a few unified [[law (principle)|natural laws]] that can be determined only through careful, thorough, and exacting philosophical explorations. The third component introduced to hermetical philosophy by the Greeks was [[gnosticism]], a belief prevalent in the Christian and early post-Christian [[Roman empire]], that the world is imperfect because it was created in a flawed manner, and that learning about the nature of spiritual matter would lead to salvation. They further believed that [[god (monotheism)|God]] did not "create" the universe in the classic sense, but that the universe was created "from" him, but was corrupted in the process (rather than becoming corrupted by the transgressions of Adam and Eve, i.e. [[original sin]]). According to Gnostic belief, by worshipping the cosmos, nature, or the creatures of the world, one worships the True God. Gnostics do not seek salvation from sin, but instead seek to escape ignorance, believing that sin is merely a consequence of ignorance. Platonic and neo-Platonic theories about universals and the omnipotence of God were also absorbed. One very important concept introduced at this time, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: ''earth'', ''air'', ''water'', and ''fire''. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 16|a}} The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are. "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." {{ref_harvard|Hitchcock|Hitchcock, p. 66|a}} Later alchemists (if Plato and Aristotle can be called alchemists) extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. ===Alchemy in the Roman Empire=== The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] adopted Greek alchemy and metaphysics, just as they adopted much of Greek knowledge and philosophy. By the end of the [[Roman empire]] the Greek alchemical philosophy had been joined to the philosophies of the Egyptians to create the cult of Hermeticism. {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay|b}} However, the development of [[Christianity]] in the Empire brought a contrary line of thinking, stemming from [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] (354-430 AD), an early Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before the [[fall of the Roman Empire]]. In essence, he felt that [[reason]] and [[faith]] could be used to understand God, but [[experimental philosophy]] was evil: "There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily sense, a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh, and this empty curiosity he is dignified by the names of learning and science." {{ref_harvard|Augustine|Augustine, p. 245|a}} Augustinian ideas were decidedly anti-experimental, yet when Aristotelian experimental techniques were made available to the West they were not shunned. Still, Augustinian thought was well ingrained in [[medieval society]] and was used to show alchemy as being un-Godly. Much of the Roman knowledge of Alchemy, like that of the Greeks and Egyptians, is now lost. In Alexandria, the centre of alchemical studies in the Roman Empire, the art was mainly oral and in the interests of secrecy little was committed to paper. (Whence the use of "hermetic" to mean "secretive".) {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 155|c}} It is possible that some writing was done in Alexandria, and that it was subsequently lost or destroyed in fires and the turbulent periods that followed. ===Alchemy in the Islamic world=== After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Middle East. Much more is known about [[Islam]]ic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Islamic translations. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 46|c}} The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. [[Plato]]nic and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated. Islamic alchemists such as [[Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi|al-Razi]] (Latin Rasis or Rhazes) contributed key chemical discoveries of their own, such as the technique of [[distillation]] (the words ''[[alembic]]'' and ''[[alcohol]]'' are of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] origin), the [[hydrochloric acid|muriatic]], [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]], and [[nitric acid|nitric]] acids, [[sodium carbonate|soda]], [[potash]], and more. (From the Arabic names of the last two substances, ''al-natrun'' and ''al-qalīy'', Latinized into ''Natrium'' and ''Kalium'', come the modern symbols for [[sodium]] and [[potassium]].) The discovery that [[aqua regia]], a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, could dissolve the noblest metal; gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium. Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably [[Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan|Jabir Ibn Hayyan]] (Arabic &#1580;&#1575;&#1576;&#1585; &#1573;&#1576;&#1606; &#1581;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;, Latin Geberus; usually rendered in English as Geber). Jabir's ultimate goal was [[takwin]], the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to and including human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burkhardt, p. 29|d}} According to Geber, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 29|e}} By this reasoning, the search for the [[philosopher's stone]] was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate [[numerology]] whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. It is now commonly accepted that Chinese alchemy influenced Arabic alchemists {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 33-59|a}}{{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 10-22|f}}, although the extent of that influence is still a matter of debate. Likewise, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] learning was assimilated into Islamic alchemy, but again the extent and effects of this are not well known. ===Alchemy in Medieval Europe=== [[Image:JosephWright-Alchemist-1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''The Alchemist in Search of the Philosophers Stone''. By [[Joseph Wright of Derby]], [[1771]].]] Because of its strong connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge. [[Gerbert of Aurillac]], who was later to become [[Pope Silvester II]], (d. 1003) was among the first to bring Islamic science to Europe from [[Spain]]. Later men such as [[Adelard of Bath]], who lived in the 12th century, brought additional learning. But until the 13th century the moves were mainly assimilative. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 124, 294|a}} In this period there appeared some deviations from the [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustinian]] principles of earlier Christian thinkers. [[Anselm of Canterbury|Saint Anselm]] (1033–1109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. [[Peter Abelard]] followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's [[consciousness]]. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical contradictions. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister, p. 287-8|b}} [[Robert Grosseteste]] (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the scientific theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations, experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations. Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister pp. 294-5|c}} [[Albertus Magnus]] (1193–1280) and [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–1274) were both [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a great deal of work in developing the [[scientific method]]. He even went as far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through [[logical reasoning]], and, since [[reason]] could not run in opposition to God, reason must be compatible with [[theology]]. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 290-4, 355|d}}. This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that universals were found through [[divine illumination]] alone. Magnus and Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except that these two did little in the way of [[experimentation]]. The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was [[Roger Bacon]]. His work did as much for alchemy as [[Robert Boyle]]'s was to do for [[chemistry]] and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s for [[astronomy]] and [[physics]]. Bacon (1214–1294) was an Oxford [[Franciscan]] who explored [[optics]] and [[linguistics|languages]] in addition to alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more important than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that they acquire [[knowledge]] of things: authority, [[reason|reasoning]], and [[experience]]; only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect." (Bacon p. 367) "[[Experimental Science]] controls the conclusions of all other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from [[law (principle)|general principles]] would never have discovered." {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 294-5|e}} Roger Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine which will remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many centuries." The idea of [[immortality]] was replaced with the notion of [[longevity|long life]]; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did not mesh with Christian theology. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 37-8|b}} Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to learn about rationalism. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 24-7|c}} So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the [[soul|human soul]].) They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded [[jargon]] set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made [[observation]]s and [[theory|theories]] about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 149|g}} In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change. [[William of Ockham]], an [[Oxford]] Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the [[Thomist]] view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view, widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 335|f}} [[Pope John XXII]] in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy, which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the Art. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.49|d}} The climate changes, [[Black Death|Black plague]], and increase in [[war|warfare]] and [[famine]] that characterized this century no doubt also served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general. [[Image:flamel-figures.png|thumb|250px|[[Nicholas Flamel]] had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his [[tomb]] in the Church of the [[Holy Innocents]] in Paris.]] Alchemy was kept alive by men such as [[Nicolas Flamel]], who was noteworthy only because he was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the [[archetype]] for the next phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosophers' stone. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt pp.170-181|h}} Through the [[high middle ages]] (1300-1500) alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic allusions and [[symbolism]] led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the purification of the soul to mean the [[transmutation]] of lead into gold (in which they believed elemental [[mercury (element)|mercury]], or 'quicksilver', played a crucial role). These men were viewed as [[magic (paranormal)|magicians and sorcerers]] by many, and were often persecuted for their practices. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 50-75|e}}{{ref_harvard|Norton|Norton pp lxiii-lxvii|a}} One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century was named [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]]. This alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually thought himself capable of summoning [[spiritual being|spirit]]s. His influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an [[occult]]ist magic. He did keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief. In spite of all this, Agrippa still considered himself a Christian, though his views often came into conflict with the church. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p.56-9|f}}{{ref_harvard|Wilson|Wilson p.23-9|a}} ===Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance=== European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the [[Renaissance]]. The era also saw a flourishing of [[con artist]]s who would use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment — would surely lead to that goal. The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus [[Paracelsus]], (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) who cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45) Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines." {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.47|g}} His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. {{ref_harvard|Debus|Debus & Multhauf, p.6-12|a}} While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well. [[Image:Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko.JPG|thumb|left|400px|Alchemist Michal Sedziwoj|"Alchemik Michał Sędziwój", oil on board by [[Jan Matejko]], 73 x 130 cm, Museum of Arts in [[Łódź]].]] In [[England]], the topic of alchemy in that time frame is often associated with Doctor [[John Dee]] ([[13 July]] [[1527]] – December, 1608), better known for his role as [[astrologer]], cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]. Dee was considered an authority on the works of [[Roger Bacon]], and was interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (''Monas Hieroglyphica'', 1564) influenced by the [[Kabbala]]. Dee's associate [[Edward Kelley]] — who claimed to converse with [[angel]]s through a crystal ball and to own a powder that would turn [[mercury (element)|mercury]] into [[gold]] — may have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan. Another lesser known alchemist was [[Michał Sędziwój|Michael Sendivogius]] (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566 - 1636), a [[Poland|Polish]] alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he distilled [[oxygen]] in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before [[Karl Wilhelm Scheele|Scheele]] and [[Joseph Priestley|Priestley]], by warming nitre ([[saltpetre]]). He thought of the gas given off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to [[Cornelius Drebbel]]. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a submarine. [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601), better known for his [[astronomical]] and [[astrological]] investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory built for that purpose at his [[Uraniborg]] observatory/research institute. ===The decline of Western alchemy=== The demise of Western alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its apogee in the 18th century. [[Robert Boyle]] (1627–1691), better known for his studies of gases (cf. [[Boyle's law]]) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. {{ref_harvard|Pilkington|Pilkington p.11|a}} This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th]] centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] and [[John Dalton]] — which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations, and revealed the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philospher's stone. Meanwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modern medicine. Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body, such as blood circulation ([[William Harvey|Harvey]], [[1616]]), and eventually traced many diseases to infections with germs ([[Robert Koch|Koch]] and [[Louis Pasteur|Pasteur]], 19th century) or lack of ''natural'' nutrients and [[vitamin]]s ([[James Lind|Lind]], [[Christiaan Eijkman|Eijkman]], [[Casimir Funk|Funk]], et al.). Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry, the new science easily displaced alchemy from its medical roles, interpretive and prescriptive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the ineffectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies. Thus, as science steadily continued to uncover and rationalize the clockwork of the universe, founded on its own materialistic metaphysics, Alchemy was left deprived of its chemical and medical connections — but still incurably burdened by them. Reduced to an arcane philosophical system, poorly connected to the material world, it suffered the common fate of other [[esoteric]] disciplines such as [[astrology]] and [[Kabbalah]]: excluded from [[university]] curricula, shunned by its former patrons, [[damned knowledge|ostracized]] by scientists, and commonly viewed as the epitome of [[charlatan]]ism and [[superstition]]. These developments could be interpreted as part of a broader reaction in European intellectualism against the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] movement of the preceding century. Be as it may, it is sobering to observe how a discipline that held so much intellectual and material prestige, for more than two thousand years, could disappear so easily from the universe of Western thought. ===Modern 'alchemy'=== In modern times, progress has been made toward achieving the goals of alchemy using scientific, rather than alchemic, means. These developments may on occasion be called "alchemy" for rhetorical reasons. In 1919, [[Ernest Rutherford]] used [[artificial disintegration]] to convert nitrogen into oxygen. This process of bombarding the atomic nucleus with high energy particles is the principle behind modern [[particle accelerators]], in which transmutations of elements are common. Indeed, in 1980, [[Glenn Seaborg]] transmuted lead into gold, though the amount of energy used and the microscopic quantities created negated any possible financial benefit. In 1964, [[George Ohsawa]] and [[Michio Kushi]], based on the claims of [[Louis Kervran]], reportedly successfully transmutated [[sodium]] into [[potassium]], by use of an electric arc, and later of [[carbon]] and [[oxygen]] into [[iron]]. In 1994, [[R. Sundaresan]] and [[J. Bockris]] reported that they had observed fusion reactions in electrical discharges between carbon rods immersed in water. However, none of these claims have been replicated by other scientists, and the idea is now thoroughly discredited. As of 2006, a universal panacea remains elusive, though [[futurist]]s such as [[Ray Kurzweil]] believe sufficiently advanced [[nanotechnology]] may prolong life indefinitely. Some say the third goal of alchemy has been fulfilled by [[In vitro fertilization|IVF]] and the [[cloning]] of a human embryo, although these technologies fall far short of creating a human life from scratch. The aim of [[artificial intelligence]] research could be said to be creating a life from scratch, and those philosophically opposed to the possibility of AI have compared it with alchemy, such as Herbert and Stuart Dreyfus in their 1960 paper ''Alchemy and AI''. ==Alchemy in art and entertainment == References to alchemy in art and entertainment are far too numerous to list. Here we give only a few indicative samples. More titles can be found in the [[philosopher's stone]] article. ===Novels and plays=== Many [[literature|writers]] lampooned alchemists and used them as the butt of [[satire|satirical]] attacks. Two early and well-known examples are *[[Geoffrey Chaucer]], ''[[The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale|Canon's Yeoman's Tale]]'' (ca. 1380). The main character, an alchemist on the way to [[Canterbury]], claims that he will "pave it all of silver and of gold". *[[Ben Jonson]], ''[[The Alchemist (play)|The Alchemist]]'' (ca 1610). In this five-act play, the characters set up an alchemy workshop to swindle people. [[Image:Alchemical Laboratory - Project Gutenberg eText 14218.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|An Alchemical Laboratory, from ''The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry'']] In more recent works, alchemists are generally presented in a more romatic or mystic light, and often little distinction is made between alchemy, magic, and witchcraft: *[[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley|Mary Shelley]], ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818). Victor Frankenstein uses both alchemy and modern science to create [[Frankenstein's monster]]. *[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], ''[[Faust, Part 2]]'' (1832). Faust's servant Wagner uses alchemy to create a [[homunculus]]. *[[Gabriel García Márquez]], ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]'' (1967). An alchemist named Melquíades adds to the novel's surreal atmosphere. *[[Paulo Coelho]], ''[[The Alchemist (book)|The Alchemist]]'' (1988). *[[J. K. Rowling]], ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' (1997). Features [[Nicholas Flamel]] as a character. *[[Neal Stephenson]], ''[[The Baroque Cycle]]'' (2003–2004). Features real and imaginary alchemists such as [[Isaac Newton]], [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier|de Duillier]], and [[Enoch Root]]. *[[Martin Booth]], ''[[Doctor Illuminatus: The Alchemist's Son]]'' (2003). *[[Margaret Mahy]], ''[[Alchemy (Margaret Mahy book)|Alchemy]]'' (2004). *[[John Fasman]], ''[[The Geographer's Library]]''<!--DATE??-->, whose plot revolves around thirteen alchemical artifacts. *[[Gregory Keyes]], ''[[Age of Unreason]]''<!--DATE??-->. Features [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier|de Duillier]]. *[[Cornelia Funke]], ''[[Dragon Rider]]'' (2004). Twigleg the [[homonculus]] was created by an alchemist. ===Comics, manga, and video games=== *[[Stan Lee]] and [[Jack Kirby]], ''[[Fantastic Four]]'' comics (ca. 1962–). Villain [[Diablo (comics)|Diablo]] is an alchemist. *[[Darklands]] PC game (1992). Alchemy features prominently throughout the game. *[[Mike Mignola]]'s ''[[Hellboy]]'' comics (1993–). The character [[Roger the Homunculus]] was created by alchemy. *[[Nintendo]]'s [[Golden Sun]] video game (2001). Alchemy is an evil force that threatens the world. *[[Hiromu Arakawa]], ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'' (2002–). 'Alchemists' can transform anything within the principle of [[Equivalent Exchange]]. *[[Nobuhiro Watsuki]], ''[[Buso Renkin|Weapon Alchemist]]'' manga (2003?–). *[[Kazuki Takahashi]], ''[[Yu-Gi-Oh! GX]]'' anime (2004–). The character [[Lyman Banner|Daitokuji]] is an alchemist who preserved his soul within a homunculus. *Nintendo's [[Final Fantasy Tactics Advance]] video game (2003). Has a playable class called Alchemist. *[[Bethesda Softworks]]' [[The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind]] prominently features alchemy as a method of creating various potions for use by the player. *[[Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb]] computer game (2003). A large portion of the game is centered around a castle in Prague formerly owned by an alchemist king. *[[World of Warcraft]] computer game (2004). Alchemy is one of the [[Professions_(World_of_Warcraft)#Alchemy|professions]] the player can learn. <!--Please provide dates --> ===Music=== *[[Tool (band)]], album ''[[Lateralus]]'' (2001). ==References== * {{note_label|Augustine|Augustine, p. 245|a}} {{cite book | author=Augustine | title=The Confessions | publisher=New York: Mentor Books | year=1963 | id= }} Trans. Rex Warner. * {{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 196-7|a}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt,p. 34-42|b}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 46|c}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burkhardt, p. 29|d}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 29|e}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 10-22|f}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 149|g}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt pp.170-181|h}} {{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. | publisher=Baltimore:Penguin | year=1967 | id= }} Trans. William Stoddart. * Cavendish, Richard, The Black Arts, Perigee Books * {{note_label|Debus|Debus & Multhauf, p.6-12|a}} {{cite book | author=Debus, Allen G. and Multhauf, Robert P. | title=Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century | publisher=Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. | year=1966 | id= }} * {{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 33-59|a}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 37-8|b}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 24-7|c}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.49|d}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 50-75|e}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p.56-9|f}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.47|g}} {{cite book | author=Edwardes, Michael | title=The Dark Side of History | publisher=New York: Stein and Day | year=1977 | id= }} * {{cite book | author=Gettgins, Fred | title=Encyclopedia of the Occult | publisher=London: Rider | year=1986 | id= }} * {{note_label|Hitchcock|Hitchcock, p. 66|a}} {{cite book | author=Hitchcock, Ethan Allen | title=Remarks Upon Alchemy and the Alchemists | publisher=Boston: Crosby, Nichols | year=1857 | id= }} * {{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 124, 294|a}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister, p. 287-8|b}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister pp. 294-5|c}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 290-4, 355|d}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 294-5|e}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 335|f}} {{cite book | author=Hollister, C. Warren | title=Medieval Europe: A Short History | publisher=Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw-Hill College | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0075571412 }} 6th ed. * {{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 16|a}}{{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay|b}}{{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 155|c}} {{cite book | author=Lindsay, Jack | title=The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt | publisher=London: Muller. | year=1970 | id=ISBN 0389010065 }} * {{cite book | author=Marius | title=On the Elements | publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0520028562 }} Trans. Richard Dales. * {{note_label|Norton|Norton pp lxiii-lxvii|a}} {{cite book | author=Norton, Thomas (Ed. John Reidy) | title=Ordinal of Alchemy | publisher=London: Early English Text Society | year=1975 | id=ISBN 0197222749 }} * {{note_label|Pilkington|Pilkington p.11|a}} {{cite book | author=Pilkington, Roger | title=Robert Boyle: Father of Chemistry | publisher=London: John Murray | year=1959 | id= }} * {{cite book | author=Weaver, Jefferson Hane | title=The World of Physics | publisher=New York: Simon & Schuster | year=1987 | id= }} * {{note_label|Wilson|Wilson p.23-9|a}} {{cite book | author=Wilson, Colin | title=The Occult: A History | publisher=New York: Random House | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0394465555 }} * {{cite book | author=Zumdahl, Steven S. | title=Chemistry | publisher=Lexington, Maryland: D. C. Heath and Co. | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0669167088 }} 2nd ed. * {{cite book | author=Greenberg, Adele Droblas | title=Chemical History Tour, Picturing Chemistry from Alchemy to Modern Molecular Science | publisher=Wiley-Interscience | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0471354082 }} ==See also== ===Other alchemical pages=== {{commons|Alchemy}} *[[Vulcan of the alchemists]] *[[Philosopher's stone]] *[[Hermeticism]] *[[Astrology and alchemy]] *[[Transmutation]] *[[Duality]] *[[The four humours]] *[[Alkahest]], [[arcanum]], [[berith]], [[elixir]], [[quintessence]] *[[Alembic]] *[[Alchemical symbol]]<!-- *[[Circle with a point at its centre]] --> *[[Goldwasser|Gold water]] ===Related and alternative philosophies=== *[[Western mystery tradition]] *[[Astrology]] *[[Necromancy]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], *[[Esotericism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], [[Illuminati]] *[[Taoism]] and the [[Five Elements]] *[[Kayaku-Jutsu]] *[[Acupuncture]], [[moxibustion]], [[ayurveda]], [[homeopathy]] *[[Anthroposophy]] *[[Psychology]] and [[Carl Jung]] *[[New Age]] ===Scientific connections=== *[[Chemistry]] *[[Physics]] *[[Scientific method]] *[[Protoscience]], [[Pseudoscience]], and [[Anti-science]] *[[Obsolete scientific theories]] *[[Historicism]] ===Substances of the alchemists=== *[[gold]] &bull; [[silver]] &bull; [[lead]] &bull; [[copper]] &bull; [[zinc]] &bull; [[mercury (element)|mercury]] *[[phosphorus]] &bull; [[sulfur]] &bull; [[arsenic]] &bull; [[antimony]] *[[vitriol]] &bull; [[cinnabar]] &bull; [[pyrites]] &bull; [[orpiment]] &bull; [[galena]] *[[magnesium oxide|magnesia]] &bull; [[calcium oxide|lime]] &bull; [[potash]] &bull; [[natron]] &bull; [[saltpetre]] &bull; [[kohl (cosmetics)|kohl]] *[[ammonia]] &bull; [[ammonium chloride]] &bull; [[alcohol]] &bull; [[camphor]] * Acids: [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] &bull;[[hydrochloric acid|muriatic]] &bull; [[nitric acid|nitric]] &bull; [[acetic acid|acetic]] &bull; [[formic acid|formic]] &bull; [[citric acid|citric]]&bull; [[tartaric acid|tartaric]] *[[aqua regia]] &bull; [[gunpowder]] ===Other resources=== *[[List of alchemists]] *[[List of occultists]] ==External links== Some websites discussing the original notion of alchemical transmutation: * [http://aras.org''Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism'':] A pictorial and written archive of mythological, ritualistic, and symbolic images from all over the world and from all epochs of human history. * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-04 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Alchemy * [http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/distance/sci122/TVtext/24/MOD24.htm Skeptical Chemists]: from alchemy to chemistry, tracing the contributions of Paracelsus * [http://www.alchemy.cz The Alchemy Museum in Kutna Hora] : World's First Museum Dedicated to Alchemy in All Its Aspects * [http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/martinon/index.html A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab] : Analytical study of the archaeological remains of an alchemical laboratory * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14218 The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry], 1913, from [[Project Gutenberg]] * [http://www.levity.com/alchemy/ The Alchemy Website] : A collection of many alchemical texts and other alchemical information Some websites which appear to espouse modern versions of alchemy: * [http://www.rexresearch.com/ Rex Research] (Robert Nelson). * [http://www.alchemicaltaoism.com/ Alchemical Taoism.com] Eases study of the complex Healing Tao qi gong (chi kung) system. Essays by experienced students and instructors. [[Category:Alchemy]] [[Category:Ancient Egypt]] [[Category:Arabic words]] [[Category:Esoteric schools of thought]] [[Category:Gold]] [[Category:History of ideas]] [[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]] {{Link FA|es}} {{Link FA|pt}} [[af:Alchemie]] [[bg:Алхимия]] [[ca:Alquímia]] [[cs:Alchymie]] [[da:Alkymi]] [[de:Alchemie]] [[eo:Alkemio]] [[es:Alquimia]] [[et:Alkeemia]] [[fi:Alkemia]] [[fr:Alchimie]] [[he:אלכימיה]] [[hr:Alkemija]] [[id:Alkimia]] [[io:Alkemio]] [[it:Alchimia]] [[ja:錬金術]] [[la:Alchemia]] [[lt:Alchemija]] [[nl:Alchemie]] [[nn:Alkymi]] [[pl:Alchemia]] [[pt:Alquimia]] [[ru:Алхимия]] [[sk:Alchýmia]] [[sl:Alkimija]] [[su:Alkémi]] [[sv:Alkemi]] [[th:การเล่นแร่แปรธาตุ]] [[tl:Alkimiya]] [[tr:Simya]] [[uk:Алхімія]] [[zh:炼金术]] Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast 574 39084664 2006-02-10T16:43:29Z 195.157.81.101 /* External links */ '''Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast''' (also called '''ADS-B''') is a system by which [[aircraft|airplanes]] constantly broadcast their current position and altitude, category of aircraft, [[airspeed]], [[identification]], and whether the aircraft is turning, climbing or descending over a dedicated radio [[datalink]]. This functionality is known as "ADS-B out" and is the basic level of ADS-B functionality. The ADS-B system was developed in the 1990s. It relies on data from the [[Global Positioning System]], or any navigation system that provides an equivalent or better service. The maximum range of the system is line-of-sight, typically less than 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km). The ADS-B transmissions are received by [[air traffic control]] stations, and all other ADS-B equipped aircraft within reception range. Reception by aircraft of ADS-B data is known as "ADS-B in". ==Usage== The initial use of ADS-B is expected to be by [[air traffic control]] and for surveillance purposes and for enhancing pilot situational awareness. ADS-B is lower cost than conventional radar and permits higher quality surveillance of airborne and surface movements. ADS-B is effective in remote areas or in mountainous terrain where there is no radar coverage, or where radar coverage is limited. The outback of Australia is one such area where ADS-B will provide surveillance where previously none existed. ADS-B also enhances surveillance on the airport surface, so it can also be used to monitor traffic on the taxiways and runways of an airport. ADS-B equipped aircraft may also have a [[display]] unit in the cockpit picturing surrounding air traffic from ADS-B data (ADS-B in) and TIS-B (Traffic Information Service-Broadcast) data derived from air traffic radar. Both Pilots and [[air traffic controller]]s will then be able to "see" the positions of air traffic in the vicinity of the aircraft, and this may be used to provide an ASAS (Airborne Separation Assurance System). Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems may in the future also make use of "ADS-B in", supplementing the existing TCAS collision avoidance system by what is called 'hybrid surveillance'. Airbus and Boeing are now expected to include ADS-B out (i.e. the transmitter of information) as standard on new-build aircraft from 2005 onwards. This is in part due to the European requirements for Mode S Elementary Surveillance (which uses 1090MHz Mode S transponder which now is normally capable of ADS-B via Extended Squitter), and some common functionality with ADS-B out. ==Addressed and Broadcast ADS== The Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics’ ([[RTCA]]) Free Flight Selection Committee defines surveillance as “detection, tracking, characterization and observation of aircraft, other vehicles and weather phenomena for the purpose of conducting flight operations in a safe and efficient manner." Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) is described as the process of creating and sending a message including the sender’s current position and other surveillance information, such as velocity, intent and flight identification. This information supports aircraft separation management by improving surveillance information at increased ranges, situational awareness and decision making. ADS data can be used in cooperation with data from current radar beacon systems, such as Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon Systems (ATCRBS), Mode S, Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) and primary Air Traffic Control (ATC) radar, and may also be used as a sole means of surveillance. There are two commonly recognized types of ADS for aircraft applications: *ADS-Addressed (ADS-A), also known as ADS-Contract (ADS-C), and *ADS-Broadcast (ADS-B. ADS-A provides a surveillance data report that is sent to a specific addressee. For example, ADS-A reports are employed in the Future Air Navigation System (FANS) using the Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System ([[ACARS]]) as the communication protocol. During transoceanic flight, reports are periodically sent by an aircraft to the controlling air traffic region. When ADS-B is used, aircraft and other vehicles continuously broadcast a message including position, heading, velocity and intent. Other uses may include obstacles transmitting a position message. Aircraft, ground-based stations, and other users monitoring the channels can receive the information and use it in a wide variety of applications. Because of this potential for broad utilization, a system using ADS-B is most often discussed as a replacement for or an augmentation to current methods of monitoring aeronautical traffic. To understand the full capability of ADS-B, consider how the current Air Traffic Control system creates information. The radar measures the range and bearing of an aircraft. Bearing is measured by the position of the rotating radar antenna when it receives a response to its interrogation from the aircraft, and range is measured by the time it takes for the radar to receive the interrogation response. The antenna beam becomes wider as the aircraft get farther away, making the position information less accurate. Additionally, detecting changes in aircraft velocity requires several radar sweeps that are spaced several seconds apart. In contrast, a system using ADS-B creates and listens for periodic position and intent reports from aircraft. These reports are generated and distributed using precise instruments, such as the global positioning system (GPS) and Mode S transponders, meaning integrity of the data is no longer susceptible to the range of the aircraft or the length of time between radar sweeps. The enhanced accuracy of the information will be used to improve safety, support a wide variety of applications and increase airport and airspace capacity. Use of ADS-B for ground-based surveillance requires only ADS-B Out (transmit) capability on the aircraft. With the addition of ADS-B In (receive) capability, the potential for ADS-B applications grows significantly. Some of the equipment and services associated with ADS-B In capability include: *Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (CDTI), a display of proximate traffic based on ADS-B reports from other aircraft and ground-based facilities. *Traffic Information Services-Broadcast (TIS-B), a ground-based uplink report of proximate traffic that is under surveillance by ATC but is not ADS-B-equipped. This service would be available even with limited ADS-B implementation. *Flight Information Services-Broadcast (FIS-B), a ground-based uplink of flight information services and weather data. ==ADS-B Physical Layer== Three link solutions are being proposed as the physical layer for relaying the ADS-B position reports: *1090 MHz Mode S Extended Squitter (ES), *Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) and *VHF Digital Link ([[VDL]]) Mode 4. ===Mode S=== The FAA has announced its selection of the 1090 MHz ES and UAT as the mediums for the ADS-B system in the United States. 1090 MHz ES will be the primary medium for air carrier and high-performance commercial aircraft while UAT will be the primary medium for general aviation aircraft. Europe has also chosen 1090 MHz as the primary physical layer for ADS-B. However, the second medium has not yet been selected between UAT and VDL Mode 4. With 1090 ES, the existing Mode S transponder (or a stand alone 1090 MHz transmitter) supports a message type known as the ES message. It is a periodic message that provides position, velocity, heading, time, and, in the future, intent. The basic ES does not offer intent since current flight management systems do not provide such data – called trajectory change points. To enable an aircraft to send an extended squitter message, the transponder is modified and aircraft position and other status information is routed to the transponder. ATC ground stations and TCAS-equipped aircraft already have the necessary 1090 MHz receivers to receive these signals, and would only require enhancements to accept and process the additional information. 1090 ES will not support FIS-B, due to regulatory requirements. ===Universal Access Transceiver=== The UAT system is specifically designed for ADS-B operation. A 1 MHz channel in the 900 MHz frequency range is dedicated for transmission of airborne ADS-B reports and for broadcast of ground-based aeronautical information. UAT users would have access to the additional ground-based aeronautical data and would receive reports from proximate traffic (FIS-B and TIS-B). ===VDL Mode 4=== The VDL Mode 4 system could utilize one or more of the existing aeronautical VHF frequencies as the radio frequency physical layer for ADS-B transmissions. VDL Mode 4 uses a protocol (STDMA) that allows it to be self-organizing, meaning no master ground station is required. This medium is best used for short message transmissions from a large number of users. VDL Mode 4 systems are capable of increased range in comparison to L Band Mode S (1090 MHz) or UAT systems. ==Implementation Timetable== The timetable for airborne ADS-B equipage will be determined by ground and airborne facility implementation, equipment cost, perceived benefits of equipping and regulatory actions by the Civil Aviation Authorities (CAA). The cost to equip with ADS-B Out capability is relatively small and would benefit the airspace by enabling increased situational awareness. ADS-B In capability can provide additional benefits when ground stations and the critical mass of aircraft are also equipped. This data was taken into consideration when building the following estimated implementation timetable. ===Near-term Implementation (2006-2008)=== The next three years will see a continuation of ADS-B trials and some implementation in “pockets” where limited aircraft equipage can bring operational benefits. Some of these include: *'''Capstone'''. In Alaska, the FAA is conducting its Capstone program to improve surveillance in some of the more remote locations of Alaska and as a test bed for implementing elements of ADS-B into the ATC environment. Approximately 190 general aviation users have been equipped with GPS receivers, UAT transceivers and flight deck displays. In addition, 11 ground-based transceivers have been installed for radar-like services, and flight information services data (FIS-B), including weather information, is being uplinked from the ground. Phase II of the program will expand the coverage and add more than 250 additional users. *'''Gulf of Mexico''' – In the Gulf of Mexico, where ATC radar coverage is incomplete, the FAA is locating ADS-B (1090 MHz) receivers on oil rigs and buoys to relay information received from aircraft equipped with ADS-B extended squitters back to the ATC centers to expand and improve surveillance coverage. *'''Australia'''. Australia is implementing ADS-B trials in Queensland to test the feasibility of 1090 MHz ADS-B as an alternative to ground-based radar. ADS-B is expected to be a much more cost-effective method of providing ATC surveillance coverage for remote areas which currently have limited or no surveillance coverage. *'''Cargo Airline Association'''. Cargo carriers operating at their hub airports operate largely at night. Equipage of these aircraft with ADS-B and CDTI displays along with a ground-based transceiver at these hubs will allow better situational awareness at night and in inclement weather and offers the potential for increased airport traffic handling capability. *'''Embry Riddle Aeronautical University'''. Embry Riddle Aeronautical University is equipping the training aircraft at its two main campuses in Florida and Arizona with ADS-B capability as a safety enhancement. The FAA will provide FIS-B and TIS-B uplink capabilities in those areas in support of this equipage. *'''Safe Flight 21 East Coast Broadcast Services'''. The FAA has announced its intention to implement ADS-B coverage for the entire east coast of the U.S. by the end of 2004. Service range will extend inland 150 miles with a goal of providing coverage at altitudes down to 2,000 feet. The medium will be UAT and the implementation will also include TIS-B and FIS-B information. ===Mid-term Implementation (2008-2012)=== Within four to eight years, an increasing number of aircraft with ADS-B Out capability along with the start of ground-based ADS-B infrastructure will begin to make a number of ADS-B applications attractive. *Benefits of “Pockets of Implementation” will become evident and these areas will be expanded, encouraging more users to equip with ADS-B capability. *Beginning in 2004 the FAA is expected to deploy ADS-B ground infrastructure based on ASDE-X equipment. This infrastructure will allow the use of ADS-B data for ATC purposes such as surface movement tracking/guidance and airborne surveillance. *Ground uplinks of TIS-B and FIS-B will commence where the ground infrastructure is deployed. *Other Civil Aviation Authorities may install ADS-B ground infrastructure and require aircraft to be equipped with ADS-B Out for operation in selected airspace. Australia is expected to be the first country to do so; however, a number of other countries with limited surveillance coverage may find ADS-B an attractive alternative to radar surveillance. *Significant numbers of users will become equipped with a minimum of ADS-B Out capability. In Europe, 1090 MHz ES will become standard capability for all new Mode S transponder installations after 31 March, 2005. UAT will become increasingly popular in the upper end of the general aviation market. *Airport Situational Awareness – A combination of detailed airport maps, airport multilateration (ASDE-X) systems, enhanced aircraft displays and ADS-B have the potential to significantly improve Runway situational awareness. *Oceanic In-trail – ADS-B can provide enhanced situational awareness and safety for Oceanic In-trail maneuvers as additional aircraft become equipped. *Use of ADS-B and CDTI will allow decreased approach spacing and closely spaced parallel approaches at congested airports with improved safety and capacity during low-/lower-visibility operations. ===Long-term Implementations (2012 and beyond)=== *Air carriers’ fleets will achieve intended ADS-B benefits in the terminal and en route airspace. *New Aircraft Separation Assurance applications will take advantage of the increased situational awareness and positional accuracy available in an airspace environment largely equipped with ADS-B capability. *FIS-B and TIS-B services will encourage general aviation equipage in all market segments. ==References== ==See also== *[[DO-212]] Minimal Operational Performance Standards for Airborne Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) Equipment ==External links== *[http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/pilotcentre/projects/adsb/default.asp Airservices Australia ADS-B info] * [http://www.flyadsb.com Safe Flight 21 ADS-B Projects] * [http://www.alaska.faa.gov/capstone/ Capstone ADS-B Project] * [http://www.nup.nu NUP II Project] * [http://www.adsmedup.it/ ADS-MEDUP Project] * [http://www.eurocontrol.int/cascade/public/subsite_homepage/homepage.html Eurocontrol CASCADE Programme] * [http://www.eurocae.org/ European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment] * [http://www.janes.com/aerospace/civil/news/jar/jar060117_1_n.shtml US crunches the numbers before committing to ADS-B] Jane's Airport Review [[Category:Avionics]] Air Transport 575 15899106 2003-12-11T16:14:25Z Optim 20978 #REDIRECT [[Aviation]] Austria 576 42041443 2006-03-03T11:38:19Z Tasc 853739 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.171.250.252|193.171.250.252]] to last version by Gugganij {{Infobox_Country| common_name = Austria| native_name = Republik Österreich| image_flag = Flag of Austria.svg| image_coat = Austria Bundesadler.svg| image_map = LocationAustria.png| national_motto = none| national_anthem = [[Land der Berge, Land am Strome]]| official_languages = [[German language|German]]<br>[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]&nbsp;([[regional language|reg.]]) [[Croatian language|Croatian]]&nbsp;(reg.) [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]&nbsp;(reg.)| capital = [[Vienna]] |latd=48|latm=12|latNS=N|longd=16|longm=21|longEW=E| largest_city = Vienna | government_type = [[Republic]] | leader_titles = [[Federal President of Austria|President]]<br>[[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]]| leader_names = [[Heinz Fischer]]<br>[[Wolfgang Schüssel]]| area = 83,871|area_rank=113th|area_magnitude=1 E10|percent_water=1.3| areami² = 32,383 | <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> population_estimate = 8,206,524|population_estimate_year=2005|population_estimate_rank=86th| population_density = 97|population_density_rank=78th | population_densitymi² = 251 | <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> population_census = 8,032,926|population_census_year=2001| GDP_PPP = $267 billion|GDP_PPP_year=2005|GDP_PPP_rank=35th| GDP_nominal = $318 billion|GDP_nominal_year=2005|GDP_nominal_rank=22nd| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $32,962|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=9th| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $39,292|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank=10th| HDI_year = 2003| HDI = 0.936| HDI_rank = 17th| HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>| sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]| established_events = From [[Austria-Hungary]]|established_dates=<br>1919| currency = [[Austrian euro coins|Euro]]&sup1;|currency_code=EUR| time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset=+1 | time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST=+2 | cctld = [[.at]] | calling_code = 43| footnotes = &sup1; Prior to 2002: Austrian [[Schilling]]| }} The '''Republic of Austria''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Republik Österreich)'' is a [[landlocked]] country in central [[Central Europe|Europe]]. It borders [[Germany]] and the [[Czech Republic]] to the north, [[Slovakia]] and [[Hungary]] to the east, [[Slovenia]] and [[Italy]] to the south, and [[Switzerland]] and [[Liechtenstein]] to the west. The capital is the city of [[Vienna]]. Austria is a parliamentary [[representative democracy]] consisting of nine federal states and is one of two European countries that have declared their everlasting [[neutral country|neutrality]], the other being Switzerland. Austria is a member of the [[United Nations]] (since 1955) and the [[European Union]] (since 1995). For the first half of 2006 Austria holds the seat of the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union|Presidency of the EU]]. ==Origin and history of the name== The [[German language|German]] name ''Österreich'' can be translated into [[English language|English]] as the "eastern realm", which is derived from the [[Old German]] ''[[Ostarrîchi]]''. ''Reich'' can also mean "empire", and this connotation is the one that is understood in the context of the [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]]/[[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], although not in the context of the modern Republic of ''Österreich''. The term probably originates in a [[vernacular]] translation of the [[Medieval Latin]] name for the region: ''Marchia orientalis'', which translates as "eastern border", as it was situated at the eastern edge of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], that was also mirrored in the name ''[[Ostmark]]'' applied after ''[[Anschluss]]'' to [[Germany]]. ==History== {{details|History of Austria}} ===Austria and the Holy Roman Empire=== The territory of Austria originally known as the [[Celts|Celtic]] kingdom of [[Noricum]], was a long time ally of Rome. It was occupied rather than conquered by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] during the reign of [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] and made the province Noricum in [[16 BC]]. Later it was conquered by [[Huns]], Rugii, [[Lombards]], [[Ostrogoth]]s, [[Bavarii]], [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] (until c. 800), and [[Franks]] (in that order). Finally, after 48 years of Hungarian rule (907 to 955), the core territory of Austria was awarded to [[Leopold I of Austria (Babenberg)| Leopold of Babenberg]] in 976. Being part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] the Babenbergs ruled and expanded Austria from the 10th century to the 13th century. [[image:Juliusz Kossak Sobieski pod Wiedniem.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|Battle of Vienna 1683]] After Duke [[Frederick II]] died in 1246 and left no successor, [[Rudolf I of Habsburg]] gave the lands to his sons marking the beginning of the line of the [[Habsburg]]s, who continued to govern Austria until the 20th century. With the short exception of [[Charles VII Albert]] of Bavaria, Austrian Habsburgs held the position of German Emperor beginning in 1438 with [[Albert II of Habsburg]] until the end of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. During the [[14th century|14th]] and 15th century Austria continued to expand its territory until it reached the position of a European imperial power at the end of the 15th century until the end of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918. ===Modern history=== Just two years before the abolition of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806, in 1804 the [[Austrian Empire|Empire of Austria]] was founded, which was transformed in 1867 into the dual-monarchy [[Austria-Hungary]]. The empire was split into several independent states in 1918, after the defeat of the [[Central Powers]] in [[World War I]], with most of the German-speaking parts becoming a [[republic]]. (See [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]].) Between 1918 and 1919 it was officially known as the Republic of German Austria (''Republik Deutschösterreich''). After the [[Entente]] powers forbade German Austria to unite with Germany, they also forbade the name, and then it was changed to simply Republic of Austria. The democratic republic lasted until 1933 when the chancellor [[Engelbert Dollfuß]] established an autocratic regime oriented towards Italian fascism ([[Austrofascism]]). Austria became part of [[Germany]] in 1938 through the [[Anschluß]] and remained under [[Nazis|Nazi]] rule until the end of [[World War II]]. After the defeat of the [[Axis Powers]], the [[Potsdam Conference|Allies occupied Austria]] until 1955, when the country became a fully independent republic under the condition that it would remain neutral (see: [[Austrian State Treaty]]). Austria also became a member of the UN in the same year. After the collapse of [[communist state]]s in [[Eastern Europe]], Austria became increasingly involved in European affairs, and in 1995, Austria joined the [[European Union]], and the [[Euro]] monetary system in 1999. ==Politics== {{details|Politics of Austria}} [[image:AustrianParliament.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Austrian Parliament in Vienna]] Austria became a federal, [[parliamentary democracy|parliamentarian, democratic]] [[republic]] through the [[Federal Constitution (Austria)|Federal Constitution]] of 1920. It was reintroduced in 1945 to the nine [[States of Austria|states]] of the Federal Republic. The [[head of state]] is the [[President of Austria|Federal President]], who is directly elected. The chairman of the [[Government of Austria|Federal Government]] is the [[Chancellor of Austria|Federal Chancellor]], who is appointed by the president. The government can be removed from office by either a presidential decree or by [[vote of no confidence]] in the lower chamber of parliament, the [[National Council of Austria|Nationalrat]]. The [[Parliament of Austria]] consists of two chambers. The composition of the Nationalrat is determined every four years by a free general election in which every citizen is allowed to vote to fill its 183 seats. A "Four Percent Hurdle" prevents a large splintering of the political landscape in the Nationalrat by awarding seats only to political parties that have obtained at least a four percent threshold of the general vote, or alternatively, have won a direct seat, or ''Direktmandat'', in one of the 43 regional election districts. The Nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in Austria. However, the upper house of parliament, the [[Federal Council of Austria|Bundesrat]] has a limited right of [[veto]] (the Nationalrat can - in most cases - pass the respective bill a second time bypassing the Bundesrat altogether). A convention, called the ''Österreich&ndash;Konvent'' [http://www.konvent.gv.at/] was convened in [[June 30]], [[2003]] to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution, but has failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two thirds of votes in the Nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and/or reform. However some important parts of the final report were generally agreed upon and are still expected to be implemented. ==Subdivisions== {{details|States of Austria}} A federal republic, Austria is divided into nine [[states]], ([[German language|German]]: ''[[States of Austria|Bundesländer]]''). These states are divided into [[district]]s (''[[Bezirke]]'') and cities (''[[Statutarstadt|Statutarstädte]]''). Districts are subdivided into municipalities (''Gemeinden''). Cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities. The states are not mere administrative divisions, but have some distinct legislative authority separate from the federal government. [[Image:The States of Austria Numbered.png|right|States of Austria]] {| border style="border-collapse:collapse" !colspan=2|[[English language|In English]] !colspan=2|[[German language|In German]] |- ![[States of Austria|State]] !! [[Capital]] !! State !! Capital |- |'''1''' [[Burgenland]] ||[[Eisenstadt]] ||Burgenland ||Eisenstadt |- |'''2''' [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]]||[[Klagenfurt]]||Kärnten||Klagenfurt |- |'''3''' [[Lower Austria]]||[[St. Pölten]]||Niederösterreich||St. Pölten |- |'''4''' [[Upper Austria]]||[[Linz]]||Oberösterreich||Linz |- |'''5''' [[Salzburg (state)|Salzburg]]||[[Salzburg]]||Salzburg (Land)||Salzburg |- |'''6''' [[Styria (state)|Styria]]||[[Graz]]||Steiermark||Graz |- |'''7''' [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]]||[[Innsbruck]]||Tirol||Innsbruck |- |'''8''' [[Vorarlberg]]||[[Bregenz]]||Vorarlberg||Bregenz |- |'''9''' [[Vienna]]||[[Vienna]]||Wien (Land)||Wien |} ==Geography== {{details|Geography of Austria}} [[image:Oesterreich topo.png|thumb|left|240px|Topography of Austria]] Austria is a largely [[mountain]]ous country due to its location in the [[Alps]]. The [[Central Eastern Alps]], [[Northern Limestone Alps]] and [[Southern Limestone Alps]] are all partly in Austria. Of the total area of Austria (84,000 km² or 32,000&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]), only about a quarter can be considered low lying, and only 32% of the country is below 500 [[metre]]s (1,640&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country. [[Image:Au-map.png|thumb|right|240px|Map of Austria]] Austria may be divided into 5 different areas. The biggest area are the [[Eastern Alps|Austrian Alps]], which constitute 62% of Austria's total area. The Austrian foothills at the base of the [[Alps]] and the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]]s account for around 12% of its area. The foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the Pannoni low country amount to about 12% of the total landmass. The second greater mountain area (much lower than the Alps) is situated in the north. Known as the Austrian [[granite]] [[plateau]], it is located in the central area of the Bohemian Mass, and accounts for 10% of Austria. The Austrian portion of the [[Viennese basin]] comprises the remaining 4%. ===Climate=== The greater part of Austria lies in the cool/temperate [[climate zone]] in which humid westerly winds predominate. With over half of the country dominated by the [[Alps]] the [[alpine climate]] is the predominant one. In the East the climate shows continental features with less rain than the areas with high rainfall averages. The six highest mountains in Austria are: {| |----- bgcolor=#DDDDDD ! &nbsp;&nbsp; ! Name ! &nbsp;Height&nbsp;(m) !&nbsp;Height&nbsp;([[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) ! Range |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;1 || [[Großglockner]]&nbsp; &nbsp; | 3,797 m || 12,457 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;2 || [[Wildspitze]]&nbsp; &nbsp; || 3,768 m || 12,362 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;3 || [[Weißkugel]]&nbsp; &nbsp; || 3,739 m || 12,267 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;4 || [[Großvenediger]]&nbsp; &nbsp; || 3,674 m || 12,054 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;5 || [[Similaun]]&nbsp; &nbsp; || 3,606 m || 11,831 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;6 || [[Großes Wiesbachhorn]]&nbsp; &nbsp; || 3,571 m || 11,715 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE |} ==Economy== {{details|Economy of Austria}} [[Image:20ec_oes.png|320px|right|frame| The [[Belvedere (palace)|Belvedere]] Palace, an example of the [[Baroque]] ]] Austria has a well-developed [[social market economy]] and a high [[standard of living]]. Until the 1980s many of Austria's largest industry firms were nationalised, however in recent years privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies. Labour movements are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics. [[Germany]] has historically been the main trading partner of Austria, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the [[German economy]]. Slow growth in Germany and elsewhere in the world affected Austria, slowing its growth to 1.2% in 2001. But since Austria became a member state of the [[European Union]] it has gained closer ties to other [[European Union]] economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to EU aspiring economies. Therefore estimates of growth in 2005 (up to 2%) are much more favourable than in the crippling German economy. '''Agriculture''': Austrian farms, like those of other west European mountainous countries, are small and fragmented, and production is relatively expensive. '''Industry''': Although some industries, such as several iron and steel works and chemical plants, are large industrial enterprises employing thousands of people, most industrial and commercial enterprises in Austria are relatively small on an international scale. '''Services''': Like in other western countries, the biggest contributor to Austria's GDP is its service sector. Most notably is [[tourism]], especially [[winter]] [[tourism]]. To meet increased competition from both EU and Central European countries, Austria will need to emphasize knowledge-based sectors of the economy, continue to deregulate the [[service sector]], and lower its tax burden. See also: [[List of Austrian companies]] ==Demographics== {{details|Demographics of Austria}} [[image:1Canaletto-Wien-Belvedere.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Vienna]] during the first half of the 18th century, painting by [[Canaletto]].]] Austria's capital [[Vienna]] is one of Europe's major cities with a population exceeding 1.6 million (2 million with suburbs) and constitutes a ''melting pot'' of citizens from all over Central and Eastern Europe. In contrast to this ''Metropolis'', other cities do not exceed 1 million inhabitants, in fact the second largest [[city]] [[Graz]] is home of 305,000 people (followed by [[Linz]] with 180,000, [[Salzburg]] with 145,000 and [[Innsbruck]] with 134,803 (2005). All other cities have fewer than 100,000 inhabitants. Austrians of German mother tongue, by far the country's largest group, form 91.1% of Austria's population. The remaining [[number]] of Austria's people are of non-Austrian descent, many from surrounding countries, especially from the former [[Eastern Bloc|East Bloc]] nations. The Austrian federal states of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] and [[Styria (state)|Styria]] are home to a significant (indigenous) Slovenian minority with around 14,000 members (Austrian census; unofficial numbers of Slovene groups speak of about 40,000). So-called guest workers ''(Gastarbeiter)'' and their descendants also form an important [[minority group]] in Austria. Around 20,000 [[Hungarians]] and 30,000 [[Croatians]] live in the east-most Bundesland, [[Burgenland]] (formerly part of Hungary). The official language, [[German language|German]], is spoken by almost all residents of the country. Austria's mountainous terrain led to the development of many distinct German dialects. All of the dialects in the [[country]], however, belong to [[Austro-Bavarian]] groups of German dialects, with the exception of the dialect spoken in its west-most Bundesland, [[Vorarlberg]], which belongs to the group of [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialects. There is also a distinct grammatical standard for [[Austrian language|Austrian]] German with a few differences to the German spoken in Germany. ===Politics concerning ethnic groups (Volksgruppenpolitik)=== An estimated 25,000-40,000 [[Slovenians]] in the Austrian state of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] as well as Croatians and [[Hungarians]] in Burgenland were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the Austrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955. The Slovenians in the Austrian state of [[Styria (state)|Styria]] (estimated at a number between 1,600 and 5,000) are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of July 27, 1955 states otherwise. The right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where Slovene and Croatian speaking Austrians live alongside with the German speaking population (as required by the 1955 State Treaty) is still to be fully implemented. There is also an undercurrent of thinking amongst parts of the Carenthian population that the [[Slovenian]] involvement in the partisan war against the [[Nazi]] occupation force was a bad thing, and indeed "Tito partisan" is a not an infrequent insult hurled against members of the minority. Many Carinthians are afraid of Slovenian territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars and considering that some official Slovenian atlases still show parts of Carinthia as Slovenian cultural territory. The current governor, [[Jörg Haider]], has made this fact a matter of public argument in fall 2005 by refusing to increase the number of bilingual topographic signs in Carinthia. A poll by the Kärntner Humaninstitut conducted in January 2006 states that 65% of Carinthians are not in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs, since the original requirements set by the State Treaty of 1955 have already been fulfilled according to their point of view. Another interesting phenomenon is the so called "Windischen-Theorie" [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windischen-Theorie] stating that the Slovenians can be split in two groups: actual Slovenians and Windische, based on differences in language between Austrian Slovenians, who were taught Slovenian standard language in school and those Slovenians, who spoke their local Slovenian dialect but went to German schools. To the latter group the term "Windische" (originally the German word for Slovenians) was applied, claiming that they were a different ethnic group. This theory was never generally accepted and has been ultimately rejected several decades ago. *[[List of cities in Austria]] ==Religion== [[Image:Emperor_charles_v.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Charles V''' Austrian Habsburg ruler and one of the major figures within the [[Counter-Reformation]].]] While northern and central Germany was the origin of the [[Reformation]], Austria (and Bavaria) were the heart of the [[Counter-Reformation]] in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] century, when the absolute monarchy of [[Habsburg]] imposed a strict regime to maintain [[Catholicism]]'s power and influence among Austrians. Despite this establishment of Catholicism as the predominant [[Christian]] religion (Protestants have throughout Austria's history remained a relatively small group), Austria's history as a multinational state has made it necessary for Habsburg rulers to deal with a heterogeneous religious population. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right as early as 1867 and [[Austria-Hungary]] was home of numerous religions beside [[Roman Catholicism]] such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian [[Orthodox Christians]], [[Jew]]s, [[Muslims]] (Austria neighboured the [[Ottoman empire]] for centuries), [[Mormons]] and both [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] and [[Lutheran]] [[Protestants]]. Still Austria remained largely influenced by Catholicism. After 1918 First Republic Catholic leaders such as [[Theodor Innitzer]] and [[Ignaz Seipel]] took leading positions within or close to the Austrian Government and increased their influence during the time of the [[Austrofascism]] – Catholicism was treated much like a [[state religion]] by dictators [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] and [[Kurt Schuschnigg]]. Although Catholic leaders welcomed the Germans in 1938 during the [[Anschluss]] of Austria into [[Germany]], Austrian Catholicism stopped its support of [[Nazism]] later on and many former religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the [[Third Reich]]. After 1945 a stricter secularism was imposed in Austria and religious influence on politics has nearly vanished. As of the end of the 20th century about 73% of Austria's population are registered as Roman Catholic, while about 5% consider themselves [[Protestant]]s. Both these numbers have been on the decline for decades, especially Roman Catholicism, which has suffered an increasing number of seceders of the church. This is due partly to [[child sexual abuse]] scandals by priests as well as the alleged unwillingness of the Roman Catholic Church to implement reforms. In addition, Austrian Catholics are obliged to pay a mandatory tax (calculated by income – ca 1%) to the Austrian Roman Catholic Church, which acts as another incentive to leave the church. About 12% of the population declare that they do not belong to any [[church]] or religious community. Of the remaining people, about 180,000 are members of the [[Eastern Orthodox|Eastern Orthodox Church]] and about 7,300 are [[Judaism|Jewish]]. It has to be noted that the Austrian Jewish Community of 1938 – Vienna alone counted more than 200,000, of which solely 4,000 to 5,000 remained after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. The influx of [[Eastern Europe|Eastern Europeans]], especially from the former Yugoslav nations, Albania and particularly from [[Turkey]] largely contributed to a substantial Muslim minority in Austria – around 300,000 are registered as members of various Muslim communities. The numbers of people adhering to the [[Islam]] has increased largely during the last years and is expected to grow in the future. [[Buddhism in Austria|Buddhism]], which was legally recognized as a religion in Austria in 1983, enjoys widespread acceptance and has a following of 20,000 (10,402 at the 2001 [[census]]). A 2005 survey among 8,000 people in various [[Europe]]an countries showed that Austrians are still among the countries with the strongest belief in [[god (monotheism)|God]]. 84% of all Austrians do state they believe in God, with only [[Poland]] (97%), [[Portugal]] (90%) and [[Russia]] (87%) in front of the countries surveyed. This is a much larger figure than the European average of 71% or [[Germany]] with 67%. [http://www.readers-digest.de/service_fuer_journalisten/index.php?id=mrd&no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=251&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=15] ==Culture== {{details|Culture of Austria}} {{Austrians}} [[image:Wittgenstein2.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Ludwig Wittgenstein]] Although Austria is a small country, its history as a world power and its unique cultural environment in the heart of Europe have generated contributions to mankind in every possible field. One might argue that Austria is internationally best known for its musicians. It has been the birthplace of many [[Music of Austria|famous composers]] such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Haydn|Joseph Haydn]], [[Franz Schubert]], [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Johann Strauss, Sr.]], [[Johann Strauss, Jr.]] or [[Gustav Mahler]] as well as members of the [[Second Viennese School]] such as [[Arnold Schoenberg]], [[Anton Webern]] or [[Alban Berg]]. Complementing its status as a land of artists, Austria has always been a country of great poets, writers and novelists. It was the home of novelists [[Arthur Schnitzler]], [[Stefan Zweig]], [[Thomas Bernhard]] or [[Robert Musil]], of poets [[Georg Trakl]], [[Franz Werfel]], [[Franz Grillparzer]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]] or [[Adalbert Stifter]]. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are [[Elfriede Jelinek]] and [[Peter Handke]]. Among Austrian artists and architects one can find painters [[Gustav Klimt]], [[Oskar Kokoschka]], [[Egon Schiele]] or [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]], photographer [[Inge Morath]] or architect [[Otto Wagner]]. Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists including physicists [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], [[Lise Meitner]], [[Erwin Schrödinger]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]], [[Richard von Mises]] and [[Christian Doppler]], philosophers [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] and [[Karl Popper]], biologists [[Gregor Mendel]] and [[Konrad Lorenz]] as well as mathematician [[Kurt Gödel]]. It was home to psychologists [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Alfred Adler]], [[Paul Watzlawick]] and [[Hans Asperger]], psychiatrist [[Viktor Frankl]], economists [[Joseph Schumpeter]], [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], and [[Friedrich Hayek]] ([[Austrian School]]) and [[Peter Drucker]], and engineers such as [[Ferdinand Porsche]] and [[Siegfried Marcus]]. Although Austrians can look back with pride on their cultural past, current Austria does not stand back in art and science. Austria hosts a tremendous amount of culture, with its classical music festivals in [[Vienna]], [[Salzburg]] and [[Bregenz]], its modern artists and writers, its theatres and opera houses. * [[List of Austrians]] * [[Music of Austria]] ==Miscellaneous topics== * [[Austrian folk dancing]] * [[Austrian German]] * [[Communications in Austria]] * [[Cuisine of Austria]] * [[Education in Austria]] * [[Foreign relations of Austria]] * [[Media in Austria|Media in Austria]] * [[Military of Austria]] * [[Public holidays in Austria]] * [[Spanish Riding School]] * [[Stamps and postal history of Austria]] * [[Tourism in Austria]] * [[Transportation in Austria]] ==References== * References and bibliography can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Austria}} * The ''[[aeiou Encyclopedia]]'' ([http://www.aeiou.at/;internal&action=_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGE=en Homepage] | [http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.a Table of Contents] | [http://www.aeiou.at/;internal&action=search.action Search]) * [http://www.oevsv.at Amateur Radio in Austria] * [http://www.answers.com/austria Answers.com] Article on Austria * [http://austria.europe-countries.com Austria in Pictures] * [http://www.austria.info/ Austria.info] Official homepage of the Austrian National Tourist Office (German, English and other languages) * [http://www.acfny.org Austrian Cultural Forum New York] Cultural meeting place in Manhattan * [http://www.cookbookwiki.com/Category:Austrian Austrian Recipes on CookBookWiki.com] * [http://www.austrosearch.at/ Austrosearch] Bilingual Austrian Search engine and Directory (German, English) * [http://www.bundeskanzleramt.at/ Bundeskanzleramt Österreich/Federal Chancellor of Austria] Website of the Federal Chancellery of Austria (German, English) * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/au.html Cia.gov] CIA's Factbook on Austria * [http://www.dwellan.com/documents/links_at_en.html Dwellan.com] Tourism in Austria * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/european/austria/au.html Library of Congress] Portals on the World - Austria * [http://peter-diem.at/default_e.htm Peter Diem] The Symbols of Austria * [http://www.photoglobe.info/ebooks/austria/ Photoglobe.info] Country Studies - Austria Info * [http://radio.orf.at/ Radio-ORF] Austrian Radio stations - both classical and modern music (live feed) * [http://www.tiscover.at/ Tiscover.at] Austria travel guide * [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3165.htm US Department of State] Facts and Information (updated February 2005) * [http://www.aua.com/ Austrian Airlines] {{EU_countries}} {{Europe}} {{States of Austria}} [[Category:Austria| ]] [[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Austria, People of]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[af:Oostenryk]] [[als:Österreich]] [[ang:Ēastrīce]] [[ar:نمسا]] [[an:Austria]] [[ast:Austria]] [[bg:Австрия]] [[zh-min-nan:Tang-kok]] [[be:Аўстрыя]] [[bn:অস্ট্রিয়া]] [[bs:Austrija]] [[br:Aostria]] [[ca:Àustria]] [[cs:Rakousko]] [[cy:Awstria]] [[da:Østrig]] [[de:Österreich]] [[et:Austria]] [[el:Αυστρία]] [[es:Austria]] [[eo:Aŭstrio]] [[eu:Austria]] [[fa:اتریش]] [[fo:Eysturríki]] [[fr:Autriche]] [[fy:Eastenryk]] [[fur:Austrie]] [[ga:An Ostair]] [[gd:An Ostair]] [[gl:Austria - Österreich]] [[ko:오스트리아]] [[hi:ऑस्ट्रिया]] [[hr:Austrija]] [[io:Austria]] [[id:Austria]] [[ia:Austria]] [[is:Austurríki]] [[it:Austria]] [[he:אוסטריה]] [[ka:ავსტრია]] [[kw:Estrych]] [[ku:Avusturya]] [[la:Austria]] [[lv:Austrija]] [[lt:Austrija]] [[lb:Éisträich]] [[li:Oosteriek]] [[hu:Ausztria]] [[mk:Австрија]] [[mt:Awstrija]] [[ms:Austria]] [[na:Austria]] [[nl:Oostenrijk]] [[nds:Österriek]] [[ja:オーストリア]] [[no:Østerrike]] [[nn:Austerrike]] [[oc:Àustria]] [[os:Австри]] [[pl:Austria]] [[pt:Áustria]] [[ro:Austria]] [[rm:Austria]] [[ru:Австрия]] [[se:Nuortariika]] [[sa:आस्ट्रिया]] [[sq:Austria]] [[sh:Austrija]] [[scn:Austria]] [[simple:Austria]] [[sk:Rakúsko]] [[sl:Avstrija]] [[sr:Аустрија]] [[fi:Itävalta]] [[sv:Österrike]] [[tl:Austria]] [[ta:ஆஸ்திரியா]] [[th:ประเทศออสเตรีย]] [[vi:Áo]] [[tr:Avusturya]] [[uk:Австрія]] [[yi:עסטרייך]] [[zh:奥地利]] [[fiu-vro:Austria]] Australia 577 move=sysop 42149638 2006-03-04T03:38:21Z Jackp 988990 /* Geography */ {{otheruses}} {{Infobox Country|the=| native_name =Commonwealth of Australia| common_name =Australia| image_flag =Flag of Australia.svg| image_coat =Aust Coat of Arms (large).jpg| image_map =LocationAU.png| national_motto =none (formerly ''Advance Australia'')| national_anthem=''[[Advance Australia Fair]]''| official_languages =[[English language|English]] (''de facto'')<sup>1</sup>| capital =[[Canberra]]| latd=35|latm=15|latNS=S|longd=149|longm=28|longEW=E| largest_city =[[Sydney]]| government_type=[[Constitutional monarchy|Const. monarchy]]| leader_titles = &nbsp;• [[Queen of Australia|Queen]]<br>&nbsp;• [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]<br>&nbsp;• [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] | leader_names = [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]<br>[[Michael Jeffery]]<br>[[John Howard]]| area_rank=6th| area_magnitude=1_E12| area=7,686,850| areami² = 2,967,909| <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> percent_water=1| population_estimate = 20,502,900| population_estimate_year = February 2006| population_estimate_rank = 52nd | population_census = 18,972,350 | population_census_year = 2001| population_density = 2| population_densitymi² = 5.2|<!-- Do not remove --> population_density_rank = 191st| sovereignty_type=[[Independence]]| established_events= &nbsp;• [[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900|Constitution Act]]<br> &nbsp;• [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]<br> &nbsp;• [[Australia Act]]| established_dates=From the [[United Kingdom|UK]]:<br>[[1 January]] [[1901]]<br>[[11 December]] [[1931]]<br>[[3 March]] [[1986]]| currency=[[Australian dollar|Dollar]]| currency_code=AUD| time_zone=[[States and territories of Australia|various]]<sup>2</sup>| utc_offset=+8–+10| time_zone_DST=[[States and territories of Australia|various]]<sup>2</sup>| utc_offset_DST=+8–+11| cctld= [[.au]] | calling_code=61| GDP_PPP_year=2006| GDP_PPP=$674.97 billion| GDP_PPP_rank=16th| GDP_PPP_per_capita=$32,686| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=13th| HDI_year=2003| HDI=0.955| HDI_rank=3rd| HDI_category=<font color="#009900">high</font>| footnotes=<sup>1</sup>English does not have ''de jure'' official status ([http://www.immi.gov.au/multicultural/_inc/publications/confer/04/speech18b.htm source]) <br><sup>2</sup>There are some minor variations from these three timezones, see [[States and territories of Australia]]<div class="noprint" style="float:right;"> ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_Australia&action=edit edit] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_Australia&action=watch watch] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australia&action=purge purge]''</div> }} <!--PLEASE USE AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH THROUGHOUT THIS ARTICLE--> The '''Commonwealth of Australia''' is a country in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] comprising the world's smallest [[continent]] and a number of islands in the [[Southern Ocean|Southern]], [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]s. Australia's neighbouring countries include [[Indonesia]], [[East Timor]] and [[Papua New Guinea]] to the north, the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]] and the [[France|French]] dependency of [[New Caledonia]] to the northeast, and [[New Zealand]] to the southeast. The [[Australia (continent)|continent of Australia]] has been inhabited for over 40,000 years by [[Indigenous Australians]]. After sporadic visits by fishermen from the north and by [[Europe]]an explorers and merchants starting in the 17th century, the eastern half of the continent was claimed by the [[British]] in 1770 and officially settled as the [[penal colony]] of [[New South Wales]] on [[26 January]] [[1788]]. As the population grew and new areas were explored, another five largely self-governing [[British overseas territory|British Crown Colonies]] were successively established over the course of the 19th century. On [[1 January]] [[1901]], the six colonies [[Federation of Australia|federated]] and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed. Since federation, Australia has maintained a stable [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] political system and remains a [[Commonwealth Realm]]. The current population of around 20.4 million is concentrated mainly in the large coastal cities of [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]], [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], and [[Adelaide]]. == Origin and history of the name == The name Australia is derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''australis'', meaning ''southern''. Legends of an "unknown southern land" (''[[Terra Australis|terra australis incognita]]'') date back to the Roman times and were commonplace in mediaeval geography, but they were not based on any actual knowledge of the continent. The Dutch adjectival form ''Australische'' ("Australian", in the sense of "southern") was used by Dutch officials in [[Jakarta|Batavia]] to refer to the newly discovered land to the south as early as 1638. The first use of the word "Australia" in [[English language|English]] was a 1693 translation of ''Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Découverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe'', a 1692 French novel by [[Gabriel de Foigny]] under the pen name Jacques Sadeur {{ref|Baker}}. <!-- there was a 1676 version, but it was suppressed --> [[Alexander Dalrymple]] then used it in ''An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean'', published in 1771. He used the term to refer to the entire South Pacific region, not specifically to the Australian continent. In 1793, [[George Shaw]] and [[James Edward Smith|Sir James Smith]] published ''Zoology and Botany of New Holland'', in which they wrote of "the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]]." [[Image:Flinders View of Port Jackson taken from South Head.jpg|200px|thumb|left|View of [[Port Jackson]], taken from the South Head, from ''A Voyage to Terra Australis''. [[Sydney]] was established on this site.]] The name "Australia" was popularised by the 1814 work ''A Voyage to Terra Australis'' by the navigator [[Matthew Flinders]]. Despite its title, which reflected the view of the Admiralty, Flinders used the word "Australia" in the book, which was widely read and gave the term general currency. Governor [[Lachlan Macquarie]] of [[New South Wales]] subsequently used the word in his dispatches to [[England]]. In 1817 he recommended that it be officially adopted. In 1824, the British Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The word "Australia" in [[Australian English]] is [[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] as either {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.ljə/}}, {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.liː.ə/}} or {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.jə/}}. == History == {{main|History of Australia}} The first human habitation of Australia is estimated to have occurred between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago.{{ref|Gillespie2002}} The first Australians were the ancestors of the current [[Indigenous Australians]]; they arrived via land bridges and short sea-crossings from present-day [[Southeast Asia]]. Most of these people were [[hunter-gatherer]]s, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the [[Dreamtime (mythology)|Dreamtime]]. The [[Torres Strait Islanders]], ethnically [[Melanesia]]n, inhabited the [[Torres Strait Islands]] and parts of far-north [[Queensland]]; they possess distinct cultural practices from the Aborigines. [[Image:Endeavour replica in Cooktown harbour.jpg|240px|left|thumb|Lieutenant [[James Cook]] charted the East coast of Australia on [[HM Bark Endeavour|HM Bark ''Endeavour'']], claiming the land for Britain in 1770. This replica was built in [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] in 1988 for Australia's bicentenary.]] The first undisputed recorded European sighting of the Australian continent was made by the Dutch navigator [[Willem Jansz]], who sighted the coast of [[Cape York Peninsula]] in 1606. During the 17th century, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines of what they called [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]], but made no attempt at settlement. In 1770, [[James Cook]] sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named [[New South Wales]] and claimed for Britain. The expedition's discoveries provided impetus for the establishment of a [[penal colony]] there following the loss of the American colonies that had previously filled that role. [[Image:Port Arthur Seeseite.jpg|260px|thumb|right|[[Port Arthur, Tasmania|Port Arthur]], [[Tasmania]] was Australia's largest penal colony.]] The British [[British overseas territory|Crown Colony]] of New South Wales started with the establishment of a settlement at [[Port Jackson]] by Captain [[Arthur Phillip]] on [[26 January]] [[1788]]. This date was later to become Australia's national day, [[Australia Day]]. [[Van Diemen's Land]], now known as [[Tasmania]], was settled in 1803 and became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Australia in 1829. Separate colonies were created from parts of New South Wales: [[South Australia]] in 1836, [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in 1851, and [[Queensland]] in 1859. The [[Northern Territory]] (NT) was founded in 1863 as part of the Province of South Australia. Victoria and South Australia were founded as "free colonies" — that is, they were never penal colonies, although the former did receive some convicts from Tasmania. Western Australia was also founded "free", but later accepted transported convicts due to an acute labour shortage. The transportation of convicts to Australia was phased out between 1840 and 1868. The [[Indigenous Australian]] population, estimated at about 350,000 at the time of European settlement,{{ref|Smith1980}} declined steeply for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease, forced migration, the [[Stolen Generation|removal of children]], and other colonial government policies that some historians and Indigenous Australians have argued could be considered tantamount to [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide|genocide]] by today's understanding.{{ref|Tatz1999}} Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by some as being exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons.{{ref|wind2001}} {{ref|smh2002}} This debate is known within Australia as the [[History Wars]]. Following the [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|1967 referendum]], the Federal government gained the power to implement policies and make laws with respect to Aborigines. Traditional ownership of land — [[native title]] — was not recognised until the [[High Court of Australia|High Court]] case ''[[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)]]'' overturned the notion of Australia as ''[[terra nullius]]'' at the time of European occupation. [[Image:Anzac1.JPG|left|thumb|240px|The [[Last Post]] is played at an [[ANZAC Day]] ceremony in [[Port Melbourne, Victoria]], [[25 April]] [[2005]]. Ceremonies such as this are held in virtually every suburb and town in Australia.]] A [[gold rush]] began in Australia in the early 1850s, and the [[Eureka Stockade]] rebellion in 1854 was an early expression of nationalist sentiment. Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained [[responsible government]], managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the [[British Empire]]. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs, defence and international shipping. On [[1 January]] [[1901]], [[Federation of Australia|federation]] of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation and voting, and the Commonwealth of Australia was born, as a [[Dominion]] of the [[British Empire]]. The [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of [[Canberra]] ([[Melbourne]] was the capital from 1901 to 1927). The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911. Australia willingly participated in [[World War I]];{{ref|Bean1941}} many Australians regard the defeat of the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZACs) at [[Battle of Gallipoli|Gallipoli]] as the birth of the nation — its first major military action. The Gallipoli campaign is often erroneously portrayed as or conceived to have been a solely or mainly ANZAC campaign. The reality was that British deaths during the campaign were twice as high as those of ANZAC forces. Much like Gallipoli, the [[Kokoda Track Campaign]] is regarded by many as a nation-defining battle from [[World War II]]. The [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom, but Australia did not [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942|adopt the Statute]] until 1942. The shock of the United Kingdom's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the [[United States]] as a new ally and protector. Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US under the auspices of the [[ANZUS]] treaty. After World War II, Australia encouraged mass immigration from Europe; since the 1970s and the abolition of the [[White Australia policy]], immigration from Asia and other parts of the world was also encouraged. As a result, Australia's demography, culture and image of itself were radically transformed. The final constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom ended in 1986 with the passing of the [[Australia Act 1986]], ending any British role in the Australian States, and ending judicial appeals to the UK Privy Council. Australian voters rejected a move to become a republic in 1999 by a 55% majority,{{ref|AEC}} but the result is generally viewed in terms of dissatisfaction with the specifics of the proposed republican model rather than attachment to the monarchy. Since the election of the [[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam Government]] in 1972, there has been an increasing focus on the nation's future as a part of the Asia-Pacific region. ==Politics== {{main articles|[[Government of Australia]] and [[Politics of Australia]]}} [[Image:NewParliamentHouseInCanberra.jpg|thumb|right|240px|New [[Parliament House, Canberra|Parliament House]] in [[Canberra]] was opened in 1988 replacing the [[Old Parliament House, Canberra|provisional Parliament House building]] opened in 1927.]] The Commonwealth of Australia is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and has a [[parliamentary system]] of government. [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is the [[Queen of Australia]], a role that is distinct from her position as Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. The Queen is nominally represented by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]; although the [[Constitution of Australia|Constitution]] gives extensive [[Executive (government)|executive powers]] to the Governor-General, these are normally exercised only on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]]. The most notable exercise of the Governor-General's [[reserve power]]s outside the Prime Minister's direction was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975|constitutional crisis of 1975]].{{ref|PL1997}} There are three branches of government. *The legislature: the [[Parliament of Australia|Commonwealth Parliament]], comprising the Queen, the Senate, and the House of Representatives; the Queen is represented by the Governor-General, who in practice exercises little or no power over the Parliament. *The executive: the [[Federal Executive Council]] (the Governor-General as advised by the executive councillors); in practice, the councillors are the prime minister and ministers of state, whose advice the Governor-General accepts, with rare exceptions. *The judiciary: the [[High Court of Australia]] and other [[Australian court hierarchy|federal courts]]. The State courts became formally independent from the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] when the ''[[Australia Act]]'' was passed in 1986. The [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] Commonwealth Parliament consists of the Queen, the [[Australian Senate|Senate]] (the upper house) of 76 senators, and a [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] (the lower house) of 150 members. Members of the lower house are elected from single-member constituencies, commonly known as 'electorates' or 'seats'. Seats in the House of Representatives are allocated to states on the basis of population. In the Senate, each state, regardless of population, is represented by 12 senators, with the ACT and the NT each electing two. Elections for both chambers are held every three years; typically only half of the Senate seats are put to each election, because senators have overlapping six-year terms. The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms Government, with its leader becoming Prime Minister. There are three major political parties: the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]], the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] and the [[National Party of Australia|National Party]]. Independent members and several minor parties — including the [[Australian Greens|Greens]], [[Family First Party|Family First]] and the [[Australian Democrats]] — have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses, although their influence has been marginal. Since the [[Australian legislative election, 1996|1996 election]], the [[Coalition (Australia)|Liberal/National Coalition]] led by the Prime Minister, [[John Howard]], has been in power in Canberra. In the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 election]], the Coalition won control of the Senate, the first time that a party (or coalition of governing parties) has done so while in government in more than 20 years. The Labor Party is in power in every state and territory. [[Compulsory voting|Voting is compulsory]] in each state and territory and at the federal level. == States and territories== {{main|States and territories of Australia}} [[Image:Map of Australia.png|thumb|240px|States and territories of Australia]] Australia consists of six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are [[New South Wales]], [[Queensland]], [[South Australia]], [[Tasmania]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and [[Western Australia]]. The two major mainland territories are the [[Northern Territory]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory|Australian Capital Territory]]. In most respects, the territories function similarly to the states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation overrides state legislation only with respect to certain areas as set out in [[Section 51 of the Australian Constitution|Section 51]] of the [[Constitution of Australia|Constitution]]; all residual legislative powers are retained by the state parliaments, including powers over hospitals, education, police, the judiciary, roads, public transport and local government. Each state and territory has its own [[Parliaments of the Australian states and territories|legislature]] ([[Unicameralism|unicameral]] in the case of the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the remaining states). The [[lower house]] is known as the [[Legislative Assembly]] ([[House of Assembly]] in South Australia and Tasmania) and the [[upper house]] the [[Legislative Council]]. The [[head of government|heads of the governments]] in each state and territory are called [[Premiers of the Australian states|premiers]] and [[Chief Minister|chief ministers]], respectively. The Queen is represented in each state by a [[Governors of the Australian states|governor]]; an [[Administrator of the Northern Territory|administrator]] in the Northern Territory, and the Governor-General in the ACT, have analogous roles. Australia also has several minor territories; the federal government administers a separate area within New South Wales, the [[Jervis Bay Territory]], as a naval base and sea port for the national capital. In addition Australia has the following, inhabited, external territories: [[Norfolk Island]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]], and several largely uninhabited external territories: [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]], [[Coral Sea Islands]], [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] and the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]. ==Foreign relations and military== {{main articles|[[Foreign relations of Australia]] and [[Australian Defence Force]]}} Over recent decades, [[Foreign relations of Australia|Australia's foreign relations]] have been driven by a close association with the [[United States]], through the [[ANZUS|ANZUS pact]] and by a desire to develop relationships with [[Asia]] and the Pacific, particularly through [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations|ASEAN]] and the [[Pacific Islands Forum]]. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the [[East Asia Summit]] following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation. Australia is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], in which the [[Commonwealth Heads of Government]] meetings provide the main forum for co-operation. Much of Australia's diplomatic energy is focused on international trade liberalisation. Australia led the formation of the [[Cairns Group]] and [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], and is a member of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] and the [[WTO]]. Australia has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the [[Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement|Australia-US Free Trade Agreement]]. Australia is a founding member of the [[United Nations]], and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance. The 2005–06 budget provides A$2.5&nbsp;bn for development assistance;{{ref|AGov2005}} as a percentage of GDP, this contribution is less than that of the UN [[Millennium Development Goals]]. Australia's armed forces — the [[Australian Defence Force]] (ADF) — comprise the [[Royal Australian Navy]] (RAN), the [[Australian Army]], and the [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF). All branches of the ADF have been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping (most recently in East Timor, the Solomon Islands and [[Sudan]]), disaster relief, and armed conflict, including the [[2003 Invasion of Iraq]]. The government appoints the chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services; the current chief is Air Chief Marshal [[Angus Houston]]. In 2005–06, the defence budget is A$17.5&nbsp;bn.{{ref_label|AGov2005|8|a}} ==Geography== {{main|Geography of Australia}} [[Image:Australia-climate-map_MJC01.png|thumb|250px|Climate map of Australia]] Australia's 7,686,850 [[square kilometre]]s (2,967,909 [[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) landmass is on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]]. Surrounded by the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]], [[Southern Ocean|Southern]] and [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the [[Arafura Sea|Arafura]] and [[Timor Sea|Timor]] seas. Australia has a total 25,760 [[kilometre]]s (16,007&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) of coastline and claims an extensive [[Exclusive Economic Zone]] of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,057&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]. The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 kilometres (1,250&nbsp;mi). The world's two largest monoliths are located in Australia, Mount Augustus in Western Australia is the largest and Uluru in central Australia is the second largest. At 2,228 [[metre]]s (7,310 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland, although Mawson Peak on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island is taller at 2,745 metres (9,006&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). ==Climate== The largest part of Australia is [[desert]] or [[semi-arid]] – 40% of the landmass is covered by [[sand dune]]s. Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil. The northern part of the country has a tropical climate: part is tropical [[rainforest]]s, part grasslands, and very little desert. Australia receives [[snowfall]] in some cities, but mostly in towns and at higher evaluations. Climate is highly influenced by ocean currents, including the [[El Niño]] southern oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia. Rainfall is highly variable, with frequent [[drought]]s. Rising levels of [[salinity]] and desertification in some areas. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore has no active volcanism only extinct volcanos, although it may sometimes receive minor earthquakes. The terrain is mostly heavily weathered, low [[plateau]] with deserts, rangelands and a fertile plain in southeast. Tasmania and the [[Australian Alps]] do not contain any permanent [[icefield]]s or [[glacier]]s, although they may have existed in the past. The [[Great Barrier Reef]], by far the world's largest [[coral]] [[reef]], lies a short distance off the north-east coast. [[Mount Augustus National Park|Mount Augustus]], in [[Western Australia]], is the largest [[monolith]] in the world. == Flora and fauna == {{main articles|[[Flora of Australia]] and [[Fauna of Australia]]}} [[Image:Koala climbing tree.jpg|right|thumb|240px|The [[Koala]] and the ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' make an iconic pair of Australian flora and fauna.]] Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it covers a diverse range of habitats, from alpine heaths to tropical [[rainforest]]s. Because of the great age and consequent low levels of fertility of the continent, its extremely variable weather patterns and its long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's [[biota (ecology)|biota]] is unique and [[biodiversity|diverse]]. About 85% of [[flowering plant]]s, 84% of [[mammal]]s, more than 45% of [[List of Australian birds|bird]]s, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are [[Endemic (ecology)|endemic]].{{ref|DEH}} Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and [[Invasive species in Australia|introduced plant and animal species]]. The federal ''Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999'' is a legal framework used for the protection of threatened species. Numerous [[Protected areas of Australia|protected areas]] have been created to protect and preserve Australia's unique ecosystems, 64 wetlands are registered under the [[Ramsar Convention]], and 16 [[World Heritage Site]]s have been established. Australia was ranked 13th in the World on the 2005 [[Environmental Sustainability Index]]. Most Australian plant species are evergreen and many are adapted to fire and drought, including the [[Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] and [[acacia]]s. Australia has a rich variety of endemic [[legume]] species that thrive in nutrient-poor soils because of their symbiosis with [[Rhizobia]] bacteria and [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] fungi. Well-known Australian fauna include [[monotreme]]s (the [[platypus]] and [[echidna]]); a host of [[marsupial]]s, including the [[koala]], [[kangaroo]], [[wombat]]; and birds such as the [[emu]], [[cockatoo]], and [[kookaburra]]. The [[dingo]] was introduced by Austronesian people that traded with Indigenous Australians around 4000 [[Common Era|BCE]]. Many plant and animal species became extinct soon after human settlement, including the [[Australian megafauna]]; many more have become extinct since European settlement, among them the [[Thylacine]] (Tasmanian Tiger). == Economy == {{main|Economy of Australia}} [[Image:Melbourne yarra afternoon.jpg|240px|thumb|right| [[Melbourne]]'s population is approximately 3.7 million, the second largest in Australia]] Australia has a prosperous, Western-style [[mixed economy]], with a per capita [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] slightly higher than those of the UK, [[Germany]] and [[France]]. The country was ranked third in the [[United Nations]]' 2005 [[Human Development Index]] and sixth in ''[[The Economist]]'' worldwide quality-of-life index 2005. In recent years, the Australian economy has been resilient in the face of global economic downturn. Rising output in the domestic economy has been offsetting the global slump, and business and consumer confidence remains robust. Australia's emphasis on economic reform is often claimed to be key factor behind the economy's strength. In the 1980s, the Labor Party, led by [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Bob Hawke]] and [[Treasurer of Australia|Treasurer]] [[Paul Keating]], started the process of economic reform by [[Floating exchange rate|floating]] the [[Australian dollar]] in 1983, and deregulating the financial system.{{ref|Macfarlane1998}} Since 1996, the Howard government has continued the process of micro-economic reform, including the partial deregulation of the labour market and the privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably in the [[Communications in Australia|telecommunications]] industry.{{ref|Parham2002}} Substantial reform of the indirect tax system was implemented in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10% [[Goods and Services Tax (Australia)|Goods and Services Tax]], which has slightly reduced the heavy reliance on personal and company income tax that still characterises Australia's tax system. The Australian economy has not suffered a [[recession]] since the early 1990s. As of January 2006, [[unemployment]] was 5.3% with 10,034,500 persons employed.{{ref|ABS6202}} The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, comprises 69% of GDP.{{ref|DFAT}} [[Agriculture in Australia|Agriculture]] and natural-resources represent only 3% and 5% of GDP, respectively, but contribute substantially to Australia's export performance. Australia's largest export markets include [[Japan]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], the United States, [[South Korea]] and New Zealand.{{ref|ABS2005}} Areas of concern to some economists include the chronically high [[current account deficit]] and also high levels of net foreign debt. == Demographics == {{main|Demographics of Australia}} [[Image:Sydney_opera_house_and_skyline.jpg|thumb|259px|right|Most Australians live in urban areas; [[Sydney]] is the most populous city in Australia.]] Most of the estimated 20.4 million Australians are descended from 19th- and 20th-century immigrants, the majority from [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]]. Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I {{ref|ABS}}, spurred by an ambitious [[Immigration to Australia|immigration]] program. In 2001, the five largest groups of the 27.4% of Australians who were born overseas were from the United Kingdom, [[New Zealand]], [[Italy]], [[Vietnam]] and China.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|a}} Following the abolition of the [[White Australia policy]] in [[1973]], numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of [[multiculturalism]]{{ref|DIMIA}}. Australia’s population has increased by about 60 times since European settlement. The self-declared indigenous population — including Torres Strait Islanders, who are of Melanesian descent — was 410,003 (2.2% of the total population) in 2001, a significant increase from the 1977 census, which showed an indigenous population of 115,953.{{ref|ABS2001}} Indigenous Australians have higher rates of imprisonment and unemployment, lower levels of education and life expectancies for males and females that are 17 years lower than those of other Australians.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|b}} Perceived racial inequality is an ongoing political and [[human rights in Australia|human rights]] issue for Australians. [[Image:Tanunda.jpg|left|thumb|240px|Fewer than 15% of Australians live in rural areas. This picture shows the [[Barossa Valley]] wine producing region of [[South Australia]].]] In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 2002&ndash;03{{ref|PoA2005}}) live outside their home country. Australia has maintained one of the most active [[Immigration to Australia|immigration]] programs in the world to boost population growth. Most immigrants are skilled; the quota includes categories for family members and [[refugee]]s. [[English language|English]] is the [[official language]],{{ref|DIMIA2}} and is spoken and written in a distinct variety known as [[Australian English]]. According to the 2001 census, English is the only language spoken in the home for around 80% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (2.1%), [[Italian language|Italian]] (1.9%) and [[Greek language|Greek]] (1.4%). A considerable proportion of first- and second-generation migrants are [[Multilingual|bilingual]]. It is believed that there were between 200 and 300 [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] at the time of first European contact. Only about 70 of these languages have survived, and all but 20 of these are now [[endangered languages|endangered]]. An indigenous language remains the main language for about 50,000 (0.02%) people. Australia has a [[sign language]] known as [[Auslan]], which is the main language of about 6,500 [[deaf]] people. Australia has no [[state religion]]. The 2001 census identified that 68% of Australians call themselves Christian: 27% identifying themselves as [[Roman Catholic Church in Australia|Roman Catholic]] and 21% as [[Anglican Church|Anglican]]. Australians that identify themselves as followers of non-Christian religions number 5%. A total of 16% were categorised as having "No Religion" (which includes non theistic beliefs such as [[secular humanism|Humanism]], [[atheism]], [[agnosticism]] and [[rationalism]]) and a further 12% declined to answer or did not give a response adequate for interpretation. As in many Western countries, the level of active participation in church worship is much lower than this; weekly attendance at church services is about 1.5 million, about 7.5% of the population.{{ref|NCLSattsurvey}} School attendance is compulsory throughout Australia between the ages of 6&ndash;15 years (16 years in South Australia and Tasmania), contributing to an adult literacy rate that is assumed to be 99%. Government grants have supported the establishment of Australia's 38 universities, and although several private universities have been established, the majority receive government funding. There is a state-based system of vocational training colleges, known as [[Technical and Further Education|TAFE Institutes]], and many trades conduct [[apprenticeship]]s for training new tradespeople. Approximately 58% of Australians between the ages of 25 and 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|c}} == Culture == {{main|Culture of Australia}} [[Image:Golden Summer Eaglemont Arthur Streeton.jpg|right|thumb|240px|''Golden Summer, Eaglemont'' ([[Eaglemont, Victoria]]) by [[Arthur Streeton]] (1889) is an early example of the rich tradition of Australian [[landscape painting]].]] The primary basis of Australian culture up until the mid-20th century was [[Anglo-Celtic]], although distinctive Australian features had been evolving from the environment and [[Australian Aborigine|indigenous]] culture. Over the past 50 years, Australian culture has been strongly influenced by American popular culture (particularly television and cinema), large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking countries, and Australia's Asian neighbours. The vigour and originality of the arts in Australia—films, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts—are achieving international recognition. Australia has a long history of visual arts, starting with the [[Cave painting|cave]] and bark paintings of its indigenous peoples. From the time of European settlement, a common theme in [[Art of Australia|Australian art]] has been the Australian landscape, seen in the works of [[Arthur Streeton]], [[Arthur Boyd]] and [[Albert Namatjira]], among others. The traditions of indigenous Australians are largely transmitted orally and are closely tied to ceremony and the telling of the stories of the [[Dreamtime (mythology)|Dreamtime]]. [[Australian Aboriginal music]], dance and [[Australian Aboriginal art|art]] have a palpable influence on contemporary Australian visual and performing arts. Australia has an active tradition of [[music]], [[ballet]] and [[theatre]]; many of its performing arts companies receive public funding through the federal government's [[The Australia Council|Australia Council]]. There is a [[Orchestra|symphony orchestra]] in each capital city, and a national [[opera]] company, [[Opera Australia]], first made prominent by the renowned diva [[Joan Sutherland|Dame Joan Sutherland]]; [[Music of Australia|Australian music]] includes classical, jazz, and many popular music genres. [[Australian literature]] has also been influenced by the landscape; the works of writers such as [[Banjo Paterson]] and [[Henry Lawson]] captured the experience of the Australian bush. The character of colonial Australia, as embodied in early literature, resonates with modern Australia and its perceived emphasis on [[egalitarianism]], mateship, and anti-authoritarianism. In 1973, [[Patrick White]] was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]], the only Australian to have achieved this; he is recognised as one of the great English-language writers of the 20th century. [[Australian English]] is a major variety of the language; its grammar and spelling are largely based on those of British English, overlaid with a rich vernacular of unique lexical items and phrases, some of which have found their way into standard English. Australia has two public broadcasters (the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] and [[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]]), three commercial [[television network]]s, three pay TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. [[Cinema of Australia|Australia's film industry]] has achieved critical and commercial successes. Each major city has daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, ''[[The Australian]]'' and ''[[The Australian Financial Review]]''. According to [[Reporters Without Borders]] in 2005, Australia is in 31st position on a list of countries ranked by [[freedom of the press|press freedom]], behind [[New Zealand]] (9th) and the [[United Kingdom]] (28th) but ahead of the [[United States]]. This ranking is primarily due to the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia. Most Australian [[Publishing|print media]] in particular is under the control of either [[News Corporation]] or [[John Fairfax Holdings]]. [[Image:Aussie rules wikipedia.jpg|thumb|240px|right|[[Australian rules football]] was developed in [[Melbourne]], Australia and is played at amateur and professional levels.]] [[Sport in Australia|Sport]] is an important part of Australian culture, assisted by a climate that favours outdoor activities; 23.5% Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate in organised sporting activities{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|d}}. At an international level, Australia has particularly strong teams in [[cricket]], [[field hockey|hockey]], [[netball]], [[rugby league]], [[rugby union]], and performs well in [[cycling]] and [[swimming]]. Australia has participated in every summer [[Olympic Games]] of the modern era, and every [[Commonwealth Games]]. Australia has hosted the [[1956 Summer Olympics|1956]] and [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000]] Summer Olympics, and has ranked among the top five medal-takers since 2000. In [[2004]], it collected 49 Olympic medals (17 gold, 16 silver and 16 bronze). Australia has also hosted the [[1938 British Empire Games|1938]], [[1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games|1962]] and [[1982 Commonwealth Games|1982]] Commonwealth Games, and will host the [[2006 Commonwealth Games]] in [[Melbourne]]. [[Australian rules football]] is the most popular national sport; players gain some international prominence through [[International rules football|International Rules]] which is an annual meeting between the Australian code and Irish Gaelic Football. However, [[Rugby League]] is more popular than Australian Rules in New South Wales and Queensland. The [[Australian Open]] is one of the four [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] tennis tournaments, held in [[Melbourne]] each January. The F1 [[Australian Grand Prix]] is also held in Melbourne, usually towards the end of March each year. Corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and élite athletes is common in Australia. Televised sport is popular; some of the highest rating television programs include the summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions.{{ref|AFC}} == See also == {{Template:Australian Topics}} ==References== <!--This article uses [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] please add references using that system and adjust the other references as necessary--> <div style="font-size: 90%"> #{{note|Baker}}Sidney J. Baker, ''The Australian Language'', second edition, 1966. #{{note|Gillespie2002}}Gillespie, R. (2002). Dating the first Australians. ''Radiocarbon'' 44:455-472 #{{note|Smith1980}}Smith, L. (1980), The Aboriginal Population of Australia, Australian National University Press, Canberra #{{note|Tatz1999}}Tatz, C. (1999). ''[http://www.aiatsis.gov.au/rsrch/rsrch_dp/genocide.htm Genocide in Australia]'', AIATSIS Research Discussion Papers No 8, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, Canberra #{{note|wind2001}} Windschuttle, K. (2001). ''[http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/sept01/keith.htm# The Fabrication of Aboriginal History]'', The New Criterion Vol. 20, No. 1, September 20. #{{note|smh2002}} Sheehan, P. (2002). ''[http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/11/24/1037697982065.html Our history, not rewritten but put right]'', The Sydney Morning Herald, November 25. #{{note|Bean1941}}Bean, C. Ed. (1941). [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/ww1/1/index.asp Volume I - The Story of Anzac: the first phase], First World War Official Histories 11th Edition. #{{note|AEC}}Australian Electoral Commission (2000). [http://www.aec.gov.au/_content/when/referendums/1999_report/index.htm 1999 Referendum Reports and Statistics] #{{note|PL1997}}Parliamentary Library (1997). [http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General] #{{note|AGov2005}}{{note_label|AGov2005|8|a}}Australian Government. (2005). [http://www.budget.gov.au/ Budget 2005-2006] #{{note|DEH}}Department of the Environment and Heritage. [http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/about-biodiversity.html About Biodiversity] #{{note|Macfarlane1998}}Macfarlane, I. J. (1998). [http://www.rba.gov.au/PublicationsAndResearch/Bulletin/bu_oct98/bu_1098_2.pdf Australian Monetary Policy in the Last Quarter of the Twentieth Century]. ''Reserve Bank of Australia Bulletin'', October #{{note|Parham2002}}Parham, D. (2002). [http://www.pc.gov.au/research/confproc/mrrag/mrrag.pdf Microeconomic reforms and the revival in Australia’s growth in productivity and living standards]. ''Conference of Economists'', Adelaide, [[1 October]] #{{note|ABS6202}} Australian Bureau of Statistics. Labour Force Australia. Cat#6202 #{{note|ABS2005}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|a}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|b}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|c}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|d}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1a79e7ae231704f8ca256f720082feb9!OpenDocument Year Book Australia 2005] #{{note|DFAT}} Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2003). ''Advancing the National Interest'', [http://www.dfat.gov.au/ani/appendix_one.pdf Appenidix 1] #{{note|ABS}} Australian Bureau of Statistics, [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/68180154bf128d91ca2569d000164365?OpenDocument Population Growth - Australia’s Population Growth] #{{note|DIMIA}}Department of Immigration, Multicultural and Indigenous Affiars. (2005). [http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm The Evolution of Australia's Multicultural Policy]<br> #{{note|ABS2001|}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2001 Census, [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@census.nsf/ddc9b4f92657325cca256c3e000bdbaf/7dd97c937216e32fca256bbe008371f0!OpenDocument A Snapshot of Australia] #{{note|PoA2005}}Parliament of Australia, Senate (2005). [http://www.aph.gov.au/Senate/committee/legcon_ctte/expats03/ Inquiry into Australian Expatriates] #{{note|DIMIA2}}Department of Immigration, Multicultural and Indigenous Affiars. (1995). [http://www.immi.gov.au/multicultural/_inc/publications/confer/04/speech18b.htm Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies?] #{{note|NCLSattsurvey}} [http://www.ncls.org.au/default.aspx?docid=2250&track=82083 NCLS releases latest estimates of church attendance], National Church Life Survey, Media release, [[28 February]] [[2004]] #{{note|AFC}}Australian Film Commission. What are Australians Watching?, [http://www.afc.gov.au/gtp/freetv.html Free-to-Air, 1999-2004 TV] </div> == External links == {{portal}} {{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2006-01-17|AustraliaPart1.ogg|AustraliaPart2.ogg|}} {{sisterlinks|Australia}} *[http://wikitravel.org/en/Australia Wikitravel guide to Australia] *[http://www.gov.au/ Australian Government Entry Portal] *[http://www.australia.gov.au/ Commonwealth Government Online] *[http://www.immi.gov.au/ Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (DIMIA)] *[http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/australia/index.html Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT): Country Information] *[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-27.000000,133.000000&spn=38.871300,61.703613&t=h&hl=en Satellite images of Australia] (Google Maps) *[http://www.nla.gov.au/ National Library of Australia] *[http://www.nma.gov.au/ National Museum of Australia] *[http://www.australia.com/ Official Australia Tourism Website] *[http://www.bom.gov.au/ Bureau of Meteorology] *[http://www.m2006.com.au/ Official website of the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games] {{Continent}} {{Pacific_Islands}} <!-- featured artcicle indicator --> {{Featured article}} {{Link FA|de}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Australia| ]] [[Category:Continents]] [[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Monarchies]] [[Category:1901 establishments]] <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[af:Australië]] [[ar:أستراليا]] [[an:Australia]] [[bg:Австралия]] [[bs:Australija]] [[zh-min-nan:Australia]] [[bn:অস্ট্রেলিয়া]] [[ca:Austràlia]] [[ceb:Australia]] [[cs:Austrálie]] [[cy:Awstralia]] [[da:Australien]] [[de:Australien]] [[et:Austraalia]] [[el:Αυστραλία]] [[es:Australia]] [[eo:Aŭstralio]] [[fa:استرالیا]] [[fr:Australie]] [[ga:An Astráil]] [[gl:Australia]] [[hr:Australija]] [[ko:오스트레일리아]] [[hi:ऑस्ट्रेलिया]] [[io:Australia]] [[id:Australia]] [[ia:Australia]] [[is:Ástralía]] [[it:Australia]] [[he:אוסטרליה]] [[kw:Ostrali]] [[la:Australia]] [[lv:Austrālija (valsts)]] [[lt:Australija]] [[lb:Australien]] [[li:Australië]] [[hu:Ausztrália]] [[mi:Ahitereiria]] [[ms:Australia]] [[na:Otereiriya]] [[nl:Australië (land)]] [[nds:Australien]] [[ja:オーストラリア]] [[ko:호주]] [[no:Australia]] [[nn:Australia]] [[pl:Australia]] [[pt:Austrália]] [[ro:Australia]] [[ru:Австралия]] [[scn:Australia]] [[simple:Australia]] [[sk:Austrália (štát)]] [[sl:Avstralija]] [[sr:Аустралија]] [[fi:Australia]] [[sv:Australien]] [[ta:ஆஸ்திரேலியா]] [[tl:Australia]] [[th:ประเทศออสเตรเลีย]] [[vi:Úc]] [[tpi:Ostrelia]] [[tr:Avustralya]] [[uk:Австралія (країна)]] [[yi:אױסטראַליע]] [[zh:澳大利亚]] American Samoa 578 41583091 2006-02-28T08:03:44Z DopefishJustin 5399 /* External links */ make link prettier {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |+ <big>'''Amerika Samoa<br>American Samoa'''</big> |- | style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" | {| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" | align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Flag of American Samoa.svg|125px|Flag of American Samoa]] | align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:American samoa coa.png|80px|American Samoa COA]] |- | align="center" width="140px" | ([[Flag of American Samoa|Flag]]) | align="center" width="140px" | ([[Coat of Arms of American Samoa|Coat of Arms]]) |} |- | align=center style="vertical-align: top;" colspan=2 | <small>''National [[motto]]: Samoa, Muamua Le Atua (Samoa, Let God Be First)''</small> |- | align=center colspan=2 style="background: #ffffff;" | [[Image:LocationAmericanSamoa.png]] |- | '''[[Official languages]]''' | [[Samoan language|Samoan]], [[English language|English]] |- | '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Fagatogo]] (constitutional and ''de facto'' seat of government); executive offices are located in [[Utulei]] |- | '''[[Governor of American Samoa|Governor]]''' | [[Togiola Tulafono]] |- | '''[[Area]]'''<br />&nbsp;- Total <br />&nbsp;- % water | [[List of countries by area|Ranked 226th]] <br /> [[1 E8 m²|199 km²]] (76.8&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) <br /> 0% |- | '''[[Population]]''' <br />&nbsp;- Total ([[2003]]) <br />&nbsp;- [[Density]] | [[List of countries by population|Ranked 203rd]] <br /> 70,260 <br /> 353/km² (914/sq.&nbsp;mi) |- | '''[[Currency]]''' || [[United States dollar|USD]] |- | '''[[Time zone]]''' || [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -11 (no DST) |- | '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Amerika Samoa]] |- | '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.as]] |- | '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' | +1 684 |- | style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |[[Image:Fatu Rock.jpg|right|300px]]Fatu Rock (right) and Futi Rock (left), islets on the reef of Tutuila at the entrance to Pago Pago Harbor (seen behind Fatu). |} '''American Samoa''' ([[Samoan language|Samoan]]: '''Amerika Samoa''') is an [[unorganized territory|unorganized]], [[incorporated territory|unincorporated territory]] of the [[United States]] located in the South [[Pacific Ocean]] southeast of the sovereign state of [[Samoa]]. The main (largest and most populous) island is [[Tutuila]], with the {{Unicode|[[Manua|Manu'a]]}} Islands, [[Rose Atoll]], and [[Swains Island]] also included in the territory. American Samoa is part of the Samoan Islands chain, located west of the [[Cook Islands]], north of [[Tonga]], and some 300 [[mile]]s (500 km) south of [[Tokelau]]. To the west are the islands of the [[Wallis and Futuna]] group. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Samoa]], [[History of American Samoa]]'' Originally inhabited as early as [[1000 BC]], Samoa was not reached by [[Europe]]an explorers until the [[18th century]]. International rivalries in the latter half of the [[19th century]] were settled by an [[1899]] [[Treaty of Berlin, 1899|Treaty of Berlin]] in which [[Germany]] and the U.S. divided the Samoan [[archipelago]]. The U.S. formally occupied its portion—a smaller group of eastern islands with the noted harbor of [[Pago Pago, American Samoa|Pago Pago]]—the following year. The western islands are now the independent state of [[Samoa]]. After the U.S. took possession of American Samoa, the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] built a [[coal|coaling]] station on Pago Pago Bay for its Pacific Squadron and appointed a local Secretary. The navy secured a Deed of Cession of Tutuila in [[1900]] and a Deed of Cession of {{Unicode|[[Manua|Manuʻa]]}} in [[1904]]. The last sovereign of {{Unicode|Manuʻa}}, the {{Unicode|[[Tui Manua Elisala|Tui Manuʻa Elisala]]}}, was forced to sign a Deed of Cession of {{Unicode|Manuʻa}} following a series of US Naval trials, known as the "Trial of the Ipu", in Pago Pago, {{Unicode|Taʻu}}, and aboard a Pacific Squadron gunboat. During [[World War II]], U.S. Marines in American Samoa outnumbered the local population, having a huge cultural influence. After the war, Organic Act 4500, a U.S. [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of Interior]]-sponsored attempt to incorporate American Samoa, was defeated in Congress, primarily through the efforts of American Samoan chiefs, led by [[Tuiasosopo Mariota]]. These chiefs' efforts led to the creation of a local legislature, the American Samoa ''Fono,'' which meets in the village of [[Fagatogo]], the territory's ''de facto'' and ''de jure'' capital. (See the Trivia section below for more information on Fagatogo.) In time, the Navy-appointed governor was replaced by a locally elected one. Although technically considered "unorganized" in that the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] has not passed an [[Organic Act]] for the territory, American Samoa is self-governing under a constitution that became effective on [[July 1]], [[1967]]. The U.S. Territory of American Samoa is on the [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories]], a listing which is disputed by territorial government officials. ==Administrative Divisions== American Samoa is administratively divided into 3 [[district]]s and 2 "unorganized" islands. These districts are subdivided into 73 villages. Districts: * Eastern * Western * Manu'a Unorganized Islands: *[[Rose Atoll|Rose Island]] *[[Swains Island|Swains Island]] [[Image:American Samoa Districts.png|thumb|left|400px|Map of the districts of American Samoa]] <br clear="left"> The villages for Eastern and Western districts are: <table border=0><tr valign=top> <td> <ol> <li>[[Aasu|Aasu]] <li>[[Afao|Afao]] <li>[[Afono|Afono]] <li>[[Agugulu|Agugulu]] <li>[[Alao|Alao]] <li>[[Alofau|Alofau]] <li>[[Aloga|Aloga]] <li>[[Amaluia|Amaluia]] <li>[[Amanave|Amanave]] <li>[[Amaua|Amaua]] <li>[[Amouli|Amouli]] <li>[[Anua|Anua]] <li>[[Aoa|Aoa]] <li>[[Aoloau|Aoloau]] <li>[[Asili|Asili]] <li>[[Atu'u|Atu'u]] <li>[[Aua|Aua]] <li>[[Auasi|Auasi]] <li>[[Aumi|Aumi]] <li>[[Aunu'u|Aunu'u]] <li>[[Auto, American Samoa|Auto]] <li>[[Avaio|Avaio]] <li>[[Faga'alu|Faga'alu]] <li>[[Faga'itau|Faga'itau]] <li>[[Fagaili'i|Fagaili'i]] <li>[[Fagamalo|Fagamalo]] <li>[[Faganeanea|Faganeanea]] <li>[[Fagasa|Fagasa]] <li>[[Fagatogo|Fagatogo]] <li>[[Failolo|Failolo]] <li>[[Falenin|Falenin]] <li>[[Fatumafuti|Fatumafuti]] </ol> </td> <td> <ol start=33> <li>[[Futiga|Futiga]] <li>[[Ili'ili|Ili'ili]] <li>[[Leloaloa|Leloaloa]] <li>[[Leone, American Samoa|Leone]] <li>[[Leuli'i|Leuli'i]] <li>[[Malaeimi|Malaeimi]] <li>[[Malaeloa/Aitulagi|Malaeloa/Aitulagi]] <li>[[Malaeloa/Ituau|Malaeloa/Ituau]] <li>[[Maloata|Maloata]] <li>[[Mapusagafou|Mapusagafou]] <li>[[Masausi|Masausi]] <li>[[Masefau|Masefau]] <li>[[Matu'u|Matu'u]] <li>[[Mesepa|Mesespa]] <li>[[Nu'uuli|Nu'uuli]] <li>[[Nua|Nua]] <li>[[Onenoa|Onenoa]] <li>[[Pago Pago|Pago Pago]] <li>[[Pava'ia'i|Pava'ia'i]] <li>[[Poloa|Poloa]] <li>[[Sa'ilele|Sa'ilele]] <li>[[Se'etaga|Se'etaga]] <li>[[Tafuna|Tafuna]] <li>[[Taputimu|Taputimu]] <li>[[Tula, American Samoa|Tula]] <li>[[Utulei|Utulei]] <li>[[Utumea East|Utumea East]] <li>[[Utumea West|Utumea West]] <li>[[Vailoatai|Vailoatai]] <li>[[Vaitogi|Vaitogi]] <li>[[Vatia|Vatia]] </ol> </td> <td> [[Image:American Samoa Counties1.png|thumb|400px|Map of the villages of American Samoa]] </td> </tr> </table> [[Image:American Samoa Counties2.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of the villages of the Manu{{okina}}a districts and Swain's Atoll]] The villages for the [[Manu'a]] district are: #[[Faleasao|Faleasao]] #[[Leusoali'i|Leusoali'i]] #[[Luma, American Samoa|Luma]] #[[Maia, American SAmoa|Maia]] #[[Ofu|Ofu]] #[[Olosega|Olosega]] #[[Si'ufaga|Si'ufaga]] #[[Sili|Sili]] There is one village on Swains Island. Rose Island is an uninhabited wildlife refuge. ==Trivia== * American Samoa is the location of [[Rose Atoll]], the southernmost point in the United States (if [[insular area]]s and territories are included); see [[Extreme Points of the United States|extreme points]] for more information). * About 30 ethnic Samoans, many from American Samoa, currently play in the [[National Football League]]. A 2002 article from [http://espn.go.com/gen/s/2002/0527/1387626.html ESPN] estimated that a Samoan male (either an American Samoan, or a Samoan living in the 50 United States) is 40 times more likely to play in the NFL than a non-Samoan American. A number have also ventured into professional wrestling (see especially [[:Category:Anoai wrestling family|Anoai wrestling family]]). * Persons born in American Samoa are United States [[nationality|national]]s, but not United States [[citizen]]s. This is the only circumstance under which an individual would be one and not the other. * The [[American Samoa national soccer team]] holds an unwanted world record in international [[football (soccer)|soccer]]—the record defeat in an international match, a 31-0 crushing by [[Australia national football team|Australia]] on [[April 11]], [[2001]]. * Although many respected reference sources list the neighboring village of [[Pago Pago]] as the capital, [[Fagatogo]] is the ''de facto'' and ''de jure'' (i.e., constitutionally designated; cf. Article 5, Section 9) seat of government. Additionally, the governor's office is located in the village of Utulei, located on the opposite side of Fagatogo from Pago Pago. The reason why many sources list Pago Pago is because the name Pago Pago, the most popular port of call in American Samoa, has become associated with the harbor itself; thus Pago Pago is now generally applied to the harbor area and the capital. However, both the port itself and the legislature of American Samoa—known as the Fono—are located in Fagatogo, a village that is adjacent to (and for all practical purposes indistinguishable from) Pago Pago. (Cf. Wikipedia entry for [[Pago Pago]].) *In March of 1889, a [[Germany|German]] naval force shelled a village in [[Samoa]], and by doing so destroyed some [[United States|American]] property. Three American warships then entered the [[Samoan]] harbor and were prepared to fire on the three German warships found there. Before guns were fired, a hurricane blew up and sank all the ships, American and German. A compulsory [[armistice]] was called because of the lack of warships. ==See also== [[Aloha Council#Scouting in American Samoa|Scouting in American Samoa]] ===Government=== * [[List of American Samoa Governors]] * [[Elections in American Samoa]] ===Sports=== * [[American Samoa at the 2000 Summer Olympics]] * [[American Samoa national rugby league team]] * [[American Samoa national soccer team]] ===CIA Factbook Data=== ''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000:'' * [[Geography of American Samoa]] * [[Demographics of American Samoa]] * [[Politics of American Samoa]] * [[Economy of American Samoa]] * [[Communications in American Samoa]] * [[Transportation in American Samoa]] * [[Military of the United States|Military: Defense is the responsibility of the US]] ==External links== {{wikinewscat|American Samoa|American Samoa}} * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aq.html CIA - The World Factbook -- American Samoa] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on American Samoa * [http://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/bookinfo/4883.html "The Passive Resistance of Samoans to US and Other Colonialisms"], article in "Sovereignty Matters", ed. Joanne Barker, University of Nebraska Press, 2005. *[http://www.historyofnations.net/oceania/americansamoa.html History of American Samoa]- Essay which looks at the history of the territory from ancient to more modern times. *[http://www.janeresture.com/amsam/index.htm Jane's American Samoa Page] *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/asian/americansamoa/americansamoa.html Library of Congress Portals of the World - American Samoa] - Library of Congress resource which provides links to resources on American Samoa. * [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/american_samoa/index.html Map of American Samoa] - Map showing the basic layout of American Samoa. * [http://www.asbar.org/Newcode/rcas.htm Revised Constitution of American Samoa] - Provides the text of the constition of American Samoa. *[http://www.asg-gov.net/ The Official Webpage of the American Samoa Government] - Lists information on the territorial government including officials and recent legislation. * [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/docs.htm United Nations Decolonization Papers] - Online United Nations Decolonization Documents including current and past Working Papers on American Samoa * [http://www.choohoo.com/ ChooHoo!] - An online community for Samoans. Features include forums, chat, blogs, etc. *[http://www.rulers.org/rula1.html#american_samoa Rulers.org — American_samoa] List of rulers for American Samoa {{American Samoa}} {{Pacific Islands}} {{Polynesia}} {{United States}} [[Category:American Samoa|*]] [[Category:Insular areas of the United States]] [[Category:Oceanic dependencies]] [[zh-min-nan:Bí-kok Samoa]] [[ca:Samoa Nord-americana]] [[da:Amerikansk Samoa]] [[de:Amerikanisch-Samoa]] [[et:Ameerika Samoa]] [[es:Samoa Americana]] [[eo:Usona Samoo]] [[fr:Samoa américaines]] [[ko:아메리칸사모아]] [[id:Samoa Amerika]] [[is:Bandaríska Samóa]] [[it:Samoa Americane]] [[he:סמואה האמריקנית]] [[lv:Austrumsamoa]] [[lt:Amerikos Samoa]] [[hu:Amerikai Szamoa]] [[mk:Американска Самоа]] [[ms:Samoa Amerika]] [[nl:Amerikaans-Samoa]] [[ja:アメリカ領サモア]] [[no:Amerikansk Samoa]] [[nn:Amerikansk Samoa]] [[pl:Samoa Amerykańskie]] [[pt:Samoa Americana]] [[ru:Американское Самоа]] [[sm:Amerika Samoa]] [[simple:American Samoa]] [[sk:Americká Samoa]] [[sl:Ameriška Samoa]] [[fi:Amerikan Samoa]] [[sv:Amerikanska Samoa]] [[tr:Amerikan Samoası]] [[uk:Американське Самоа]] [[zh:美屬薩摩亞]] Alien 579 41942092 2006-03-02T19:59:23Z Lucian Gregory 1008143 {{wiktionarypar|alien}} '''Alien''' or '''Aliens''' may mean: * [[Extraterrestrial life]], in scientific context * [[Extraterrestrial life in culture]] * [[Alien (film)|''Alien'' (film)]] (1979), by Ridley Scott * [[Aliens (1986 film)|''Aliens'' (1986 film)]], the sequel to the above film * [[xenomorph]], the alien creatures from the ''Alien'' movies * [[Aliens (comic)]], a group of comic book series * [[Alien (biology)]], a non-native species * [[Alien (computing)]], a program that converts between different Linux package distribution file formats * [[Alien (law)]], a person who is neither a native nor a citizen of their country of residence * [[Alien (signifier)]], use in literature and criticism as the embodiment of an outside perspective or the sense of the other * [[The Aliens]], Roky Erickson's backing band * [[Alien (game)]], a 1982 DOS text adventure {{disambig}} [[de:Alien]] [[es:Alien]] [[fr:Alien]] [[ja:宇宙人]] [[nl:Buitenaards wezen]] [[pl:obcy]] [[pt:Alienígena]] [[fi:Alien]] [[zh:外星人]] Astronomer 580 42138169 2006-03-04T01:52:54Z Mozasaur 475997 terminology, astronomers are people, not all astronomers do research. An '''astronomer''' or '''astrophysicist''' is a person whose area of interest is [[astronomy]] or [[astrophysics]]. [[Image:Johannes Helvelius.jpg|right|thumb|180px|[[Johannes Hevelius]] was famed for his work on [[sunspot]]s, and being the first to study the surface of the [[moon]].]] Astronomy is generally thought to have begun in [[ancient history|ancient]] [[Babylon]] by the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] [[Zoroastrian]] priests (the ''[[magi]]''). Recent studies of Babylonian records have shown them to be extremely accurate for the ancient night sky. Following the Babylonians, the [[Egypt]]ians also had an emphasis on observations of the sky. Mixtures of religious interpretations of the sky and the development of complex models for applying these interpretations, led to a [[duality]] that we now identify as [[astrology]]. It is important to recognize that before about [[1750]], there was no distinction between [[astrology]] and [[astronomy]]. Astronomers, unlike most scientists, cannot interact with the objects that they study. They instead must resort to detailed [[observation]] in order to make discoveries. Generally, astronomers use [[telescope|telescopes]] or other imaging equipment to make such observations. The job itself is involved with travel to remote locations to study as well. == Famous astronomers == {| border |- !Astronomer !Contribution |- |- |[[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]] and [[Ptolemy]] |Determined the positions of about 1,000 bright stars, tried to explain the puzzles of astronomy without refuting only believed geocentric model of universe and classified stars by [[Apparent magnitude|magnitude]]. |- |[[Aristarchus of Samos]] |First known person to propound the [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric model]] of universe |- |[[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] |This Persian astronomer gave the first extant exposition of the whole system of plane and spherical [[trigonometry]]. Made very accurate tables of [[planetary]] movements and named many [[star]]s. His planetary system was the most advanced of his period and was used extensively until the development of the [[heliocentric]] model. [[Tusi-couple]] resolves linear motion into the sum of two circular motions. He also calculated the value of 51' for the [[precession]] of the [[equinoxes]] and contributed to construction and usage of [[astrolabe]]. |- |[[copernicus|Nicolaus Copernicus]] |Was influential in reintroducing the concept of Heliocentrism in modern times. |- |[[Tycho Brahe]] |Did develop many important astronomical instruments, and was the first to do accurate repeatable measurments of the heavens. The measurements of the orbit of Mars were very important to the development of astronomy. |- |[[Johannes Kepler]] |Suggested the [[Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion|elliptical orbits]] of planets, and propounded his ''[[Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion|Laws of Planetary Motion]]''. |- |[[Galileo Galilei]] |Was the first to use the [[telescope]] to observe the sky. Condemned to house arrest for his discoveries by [[Inquisition|Inquisitional]] edict, which was lifted 359 years later by [[Pope John Paul II]]. |- |[[Isaac Newton]] |Published ''Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' ([[1687]]), containing the "[[Newton's laws of motion]]", which are fundamental to mechanical physics, and which explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Predicted the orbits of the [[Planet|planets]]. |- |[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] |Extensive work on the internal mechanisms of stars, particularly known for determining the effect of [[special relativity]] on stars, including being the first to calculate the [[Chandrasekhar limit]], which he did, without a calculator, on a boat journey. |- |[[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] |Catalogued [[Cepheid variable]] stars in the [[Magellanic Clouds]], in [[1912]] discovered the relationship between luminosty and periodicity in Cepheids -- leading to [[Ejnar Hertzsprung|Hertzprung]]'s later work. |- |[[Ejnar Hertzsprung]] |determined the distance to several [[Cepheid variable|Cepheids]], when Cepheids were detected in other [[galaxy|galaxies]] such as the [[Andromeda galaxy]], the distance to those galaxies could then be determined. |- |[[Edwin Hubble]] |Discovered the expansion of the universe. ([[Hubble's Law]]) [[Hubble Space Telescope|The Hubble Orbiting Space Telescope]] was named in his honor. |} == See also == * [[Amateur astronomy]] * [[List of astronomers]] ---- There is also a well-known painting by [[Johannes Vermeer]] titled ''The Astronomer'', which is often linked to Vermeer's ''The [[Geographer]]''. These paintings are both thought to represent the growing influence and rise in prominence of scientific inquiry in [[Europe]] at the time of their painting, [[1668]]-[[1669|69]]. ---- [[Category:Astronomers| ]] [[Category:Science occupations]] [[als:Astronom]] [[bg:Астроном]] [[da:Astronom]] [[de:Astronom]] [[eo:Astronomo]] [[ko:천문학자]] [[it:Astronomo]] [[hu:Csillagász]] [[nl:Astronoom]] [[ja:天文学者]] [[no:Astronom]] [[nn:Astronom]] [[pl:Astronom]] [[simple:Astronomer]] [[sk:Astronóm]] [[sl:Astronom]] [[fi:Tähtitieteilijä]] [[th:นักดาราศาสตร์]] [[zh:天文学家]] Ameboid stage 583 15899114 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]] Amoeboid 584 40444702 2006-02-20T16:26:57Z BinaryTed 709141 Revert to revision 36472982 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] [[Image:Chaos diffluens.jpg|thumb|Amoeba (''Chaos diffluens'')]] [[Image:live_Ammonia_tepida.jpg|thumb|Foraminiferan (''Ammonia tepida'')]] [[Image:Actinophrys sol.jpg|thumb|Heliozoan (''Actinophrys sol'')]] '''Amoeboids''' are [[cell (biology)|cell]]s that move or feed by means of temporary projections, called [[pseudopod]]s (false feet). They have appeared in a number of different groups. Some cells in multicellular animals may be amoeboid, for instance our [[white blood cell]]s, which consume pathogens. Many [[protist]]s exist as individual amoeboid cells, or take such a form at some point in their life-cycle. The most famous such organism is ''[[Amoeba|Amoeba proteus]]''; the name amoebae is variously used to describe its close relatives, other organisms similar to it, or the amoeboids in general. Amoeboids may be divided into several morphological categories based on the form and structure of the pseudopods. Those where the pseudopods are supported by regular arrays of [[microtubule]]s are called actinopods, and forms where they are not are called rhizopods, further divided into lobse, filose, and reticulose amoebae. There is also a strange group of giant marine amoeboids, the [[xenophyophore]]s, that do not fall into any of these categories. * Lobose pseudopods are blunt, and there may be one or several on a cell, which is usually divided into a layer of clear ectoplasm surrounding more granular endoplasm. Most, including ''Amoeba'' itself, move by the body mass flowing into an anterior pseudopod. The vast majority form a monophyletic group called the [[Amoebozoa]], which also includes most [[slime mould]]s. A second group, the [[Percolozoa]], includes protists that can transform between amoeboid and [[flagellate]] forms. * Filose pseudopods are narrow and tapering. The vast majority of filose amoebae, including all those that produce shells, are placed within the [[Cercozoa]] together with various flagellates that tend to have amoeboid forms. The naked filose amoebae comprise two other groups, the [[vampyrellid]]s and [[nucleariid]]s. The latter appear to be close relatives of [[animal]]s and [[fungus|fungi]]. * Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to form a net. They are found most notably among the [[Foraminifera]], a large group of marine protists that generally produce multi-chambered shells. There are only a few sorts of naked reticulose amoeboids, notably the [[gymnophryid]]s, and their relationships are not certain. * Actinopods are divided into the [[radiolaria]] and [[heliozoa]]. The radiolaria are mostly marine protists with complex internal skeletons, including central capsules that divide the cells into granular endoplasm and frothy ectoplasm that keeps them buoyant. The heliozoa include both freshwater and marine forms that use their axopods to capture small prey, and only have simple scales or spines for skeletal elements. Both groups appear to be [[polyphyletic]]. Traditionally the amoeboid protozoa are grouped together as the Sarcodina, variously ranked from class to phylum, with each of the above categories as a formal subtaxon. However, since they are all based on form rather than phylogeny, newer systems generally separate some out or abandon them entirely. Most amoeboids are now included in two major supergroups - the [[Amoebozoa]], including most lobose amoebae and slime moulds, and the [[Rhizaria]], including the Cercozoa, Foraminifera, radiolarian classes and certain heliozoa. However, amoeboids have appeared separately in many other groups, including various different lines of algae not listed above. == External links == * [http://www.bms.ed.ac.uk/research/others/smaciver/amoebae.htm The Amoebae] website brings together information from published sources. * [http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html Amoebas are more than just blobs] * [http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html sun animacules and amoebas] [[Category:Protista]][[Category:Cell biology]][[Category:Amoeboids|*]][[Category:Motile cells]] [[es:rizópodo]] [[fr:Actinopoda]] [[pl:Ameby]] ASCII 586 move=:edit= 41964454 2006-03-02T22:42:35Z TigerShark 161478 rv to Johnteslade {{featured article}} {{otheruses}} [[Image:ascii_full.png|frame|There are 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126.]] '''ASCII''' ('''''A'''merican '''S'''tandard '''C'''ode for '''I'''nformation '''I'''nterchange''), generally [[IPA for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[&#712;æski]}}, is a [[character encoding]] based on the [[English alphabet]]. ASCII codes represent [[character (computing)|text]] in [[computer]]s, [[telecommunications|communications]] equipment, and other devices that work with text. Most modern character encodings have a historical basis in ASCII. ASCII was first published as a standard in 1967 and was last updated in 1986. It currently defines codes for 33 non-printing, mostly obsolete [[control character]]s that affect how text is processed, plus the following 95 printable characters (starting with the space character): <pre> !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>? @ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_ `abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~ </pre> Asteroid [[3568 ASCII]] is named after the character encoding. ==Overview== Like other character representation computer [[code]]s, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and the symbols/[[glyph]]s of a written language, thus allowing [[digital]] devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information. The ASCII character encoding<ref>International Organization for Standardization ([[December 1]], [[1975]]). "[http://www.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/001.pdf The set of control characters for ISO 646]". ''Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Registry''. Alternate U.S. version: [http://www.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/006.pdf]. Accessed [[August 7]], [[2005]].</ref>&nbsp;— or a compatible extension (see below)&nbsp;— is used on nearly all common computers, especially [[personal computer]]s and [[workstation]]s. The preferred [[MIME]] name for this encoding is "US-ASCII".<ref>Internet Assigned Numbers Authority ([[January 28]], [[2005]]). "[http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets Character Sets]". Accessed [[August 7]], [[2005]].</ref> ASCII is, strictly, a seven-[[bit]] code, meaning that it uses the bit patterns representable with seven binary digits (a range of 0 to 127 decimal) to represent character information. At the time ASCII was introduced, many computers dealt with eight-bit groups ([[byte]]s or, more specifically, [[octet (computing)|octet]]s) as the smallest unit of information; the eighth bit was commonly used as a [[parity bit]] for error checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions. Machines which did not use parity typically set the eighth bit to zero, though some systems such as [[Prime computer|Prime]] machines running [[PRIMOS]] set the eighth bit of ASCII characters to one. ASCII only defines a relationship between specific characters and bit sequences; aside from reserving a few control codes for line-oriented formatting, it does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Such concepts are within the realm of other systems such as the [[markup language]]s. ==History== ASCII developed from [[Telegraphy|telegraphic codes]] and first entered commercial use as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by [[AT&T|Bell]] data services. The [[Bell System]] had previously planned to use a six-bit code, derived from [[Fieldata]], that added punctuation and lower-case letters to the earlier five-bit [[Baudot code|Baudot]] teleprinter code, but was persuaded instead to join the [[American National Standards Institute|ASA]] subcommittee that had started to develop ASCII. Baudot helped in the automation of sending and receiving telegraphic messages, and took many features from [[Morse code]]; however, unlike Morse code, Baudot used constant-length codes. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII both underwent re-ordering for more convenient sorting (especially alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. [[Bob Bemer]] introduced features such as the '[[escape sequence]]'. The American Standards Association (ASA, later to become [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]]) first published ASCII as a standard in 1963. ASCII-1963 lacked the lowercase letters, and had an up-arrow (&#8593;) instead of the caret (^) and a left-arrow (&#8592;) instead of the underscore (_). The 1967 version added the lowercase letters, changed the names of a few control characters and moved the two controls ACK and ESC from the lowercase letters area into the control codes area. ASCII was subsequently updated and published as ANSI X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986. Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII. These encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, even though ASCII is strictly defined only by the ASA/ANSI standards: * The [[European Computer Manufacturers Association]] published editions of its ASCII clone, ECMA-6, in 1965, 1967, 1970, 1973, 1983, and 1991. The 1991 edition is the same as ANSI X3.4-1986.<ref>ECMA International (December 1991). [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/files/ECMA-ST/Ecma-006.pdf Standard ECMA-6: 7-bit Coded Character Set, 6th edition.] Accessed [[December 17]], [[2005]].</ref> * The [[International Organization for Standardization]] published its version, ISO 646 (later [[ISO/IEC 646]]) in 1967, 1972, 1983, and 1991. ISO 646:1972, in particular, established a set of country-specific versions with punctuation characters replaced with non-English letters. ISO/IEC 646:1991 International Reference Version is the same as ANSI X3.4-1986. * The [[International Telecommunication Union]] published its version of ANSI X3.4-1986, [[ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector|ITU-T]] Recommendation T.50, in 1992. In the early 1970s, under the name CCITT, the same organization published a version as CCITT Recommendation V.3. * [[DIN]] published a version of ASCII as DIN 66003 in 1974. * The [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]] published a version in 1969 as RFC 20, and established the Internet's standard version, based on ANSI X3.4-1986, with the publication of RFC 1345 in 1992. * [[IBM]]'s version of ANSI X3.4-1986 is published in IBM technical literature as [[code page 367]]. ASCII has also become embedded in its probable replacement, [[Unicode]], as the 'lowest' 128 characters. Some observers consider ASCII the most "successful" software standard ever promulgated. ==ASCII control characters== ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for [[control character]]s: codes originally intended not to carry printable information, but rather to control devices (such as [[computer printer|printer]]s) that make use of ASCII. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 27 represents the "escape" key often found in the top left corner of common [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]s. Code 127 (all seven bits on), another special character, equates to "delete" or "rubout". Though its function resembles that of other control characters, the designers of ASCII used this pattern so that it could "erase" a section of [[punched tape|paper tape]] (a popular storage medium until the 1980s) by punching all possible holes at a particular character position, thus effectively replacing any previous information. Since Code 0 (null,all bits off) was also ignored it was possible to leave gaps and then make corrections by blanking characters before or after the gap and then entering new characters in the gap. Many of the ASCII control codes serve (or served) to mark data packets, or to control a data transmission protocol (e.g. ENQuiry [effectively, "any stations out there?"], ACKnowledge, Negative AcKnowledge, Start Of Header, Start of TeXt, End of TeXt, etc). ESCape and SUBstitute permit a communications protocol to, for instance, mark binary data so that if it contains codes with the same pattern as a protocol character, the recipient will process the code as data. The designers of ASCII intended the separator characters ("Record Separator", etc.) for use with magnetic tape systems. Two of the device control characters, commonly interpreted as [[XON]] and [[XOFF]], generally function as [[flow control]] characters to throttle data flow to a slow device (such as a printer) from a fast device (such as a computer) - so data does not overrun and get lost. Early users of ASCII adopted some of the control codes to represent "meta information" such as end-of-line, start/end of a data element, and so on. These assignments often conflict, so part of the effort in converting data from one format to another involves making the correct meta information transformations. For example, the character(s) representing end-of-line ("[[newline]]") in text data files/streams vary from [[operating system]] to operating system. When moving files from one system to another, the conversion process must recognize these characters as end-of-line markers and handle them appropriately. Today, ASCII users use the control characters less and less—with the exception of "carriage return" and/or "line feed". Modern markup languages, modern communication protocols, the move from text-based to graphical devices, and the demise of teleprinters, punch-cards, and paper tapes have rendered most of the control characters obsolete. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- !style="width: 5.5em"|Binary !style="width: 2.5em"|Oct !style="width: 2.5em"|Dec !style="width: 2.5em"|Hex !style="width: 2.5em"|Abbr !style="width: 2.5em"|PR{{ref 1}} !style="width: 2.5em"|CS{{ref 2}} !Description |- |0000&nbsp;0000 |000 |0 |00 |NUL |<big>&#9216;</big> |^@ |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Null character]] |- |0000&nbsp;0001 |001 |1 |01 |SOH |<big>&#9217;</big> |^A |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Start of Header |- |0000&nbsp;0010 |002 |2 |02 |STX |<big>&#9218;</big> |^B |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Start of Text |- |0000&nbsp;0011 |003 |3 |03 |ETX |<big>&#9219;</big> |^C |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|End of Text |- |0000&nbsp;0100 |004 |4 |04 |EOT |<big>&#9220;</big> |^D |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[End-of-transmission character|End of Transmission]] |- |0000&nbsp;0101 |005 |5 |05 |ENQ |<big>&#9221;</big> |^E |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Enquiry |- |0000&nbsp;0110 |006 |6 |06 |ACK |<big>&#9222;</big> |^F |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Acknowledgment |- |0000&nbsp;0111 |007 |7 |07 |BEL |<big>&#9223;</big> |^G |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Bell character|Bell]] |- |0000&nbsp;1000 |010 |8 |08 |BS |<big>&#9224;</big> |^H |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Backspace]]{{ref 3}}{{ref 7}} |- |0000&nbsp;1001 |011 |9 |09 |HT |<big>&#9225;</big> |^I |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Horizontal [[Tab]] |- |0000&nbsp;1010 |012 |10 |0A |LF |<big>&#9226;</big> |^J |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Line feed]] |- |0000&nbsp;1011 |013 |11 |0B |VT |<big>&#9227;</big> |^K |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Vertical Tab |- |0000&nbsp;1100 |014 |12 |0C |FF |<big>&#9228;</big> |^L |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Form feed]] |- |0000&nbsp;1101 |015 |13 |0D |CR |<big>&#9229;</big> |^M |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Carriage return]]{{ref 6}} |- |0000&nbsp;1110 |016 |14 |0E |SO |<big>&#9230;</big> |^N |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift Out]] |- |0000&nbsp;1111 |017 |15 |0F |SI |<big>&#9231;</big> |^O |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift In]] |- |0001&nbsp;0000 |020 |16 |10 |DLE |<big>&#9232;</big> |^P |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Data Link Escape |- |0001&nbsp;0001 |021 |17 |11 |DC1 |<big>&#9233;</big> |^Q |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 1 (oft. XON) |- |0001&nbsp;0010 |022 |18 |12 |DC2 |<big>&#9234;</big> |^R |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 2 |- |0001&nbsp;0011 |023 |19 |13 |DC3 |<big>&#9235;</big> |^S |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 3 (oft. XOFF) |- |0001&nbsp;0100 |024 |20 |14 |DC4 |<big>&#9236;</big> |^T |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 4 |- |0001&nbsp;0101 |025 |21 |15 |NAK |<big>&#9237;</big> |^U |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Negative-acknowledge character|Negative Acknowledgement]] |- |0001&nbsp;0110 |026 |22 |16 |SYN |<big>&#9238;</big> |^V |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Synchronous Idle |- |0001&nbsp;0111 |027 |23 |17 |ETB |<big>&#9239;</big> |^W |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|End of Trans. Block |- |0001&nbsp;1000 |030 |24 |18 |CAN |<big>&#9240;</big> |^X |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Cancel character|Cancel]] |- |0001&nbsp;1001 |031 |25 |19 |EM |<big>&#9241;</big> |^Y |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|End of Medium |- |0001&nbsp;1010 |032 |26 |1A |SUB |<big>&#9242;</big> |^Z |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Substitute |- |0001&nbsp;1011 |033 |27 |1B |ESC |<big>&#9243;</big> |^<nowiki>[</nowiki> |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Escape character|Escape]]{{ref 5}} |- |0001&nbsp;1100 |034 |28 |1C |FS |<big>&#9244;</big> |^\ |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|File Separator |- |0001&nbsp;1101 |035 |29 |1D |GS |<big>&#9245;</big> |^<nowiki>]</nowiki> |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Group Separator |- |0001&nbsp;1110 |036 |30 |1E |RS |<big>&#9246;</big> |^^ |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Record Separator |- |0001&nbsp;1111 |037 |31 |1F |US |<big>&#9247;</big> |^_ |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Unit Separator |- |0111&nbsp;1111 |177 |127 |7F |DEL |<big>&#9249;</big> |^? |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Delete{{ref 4}}{{ref 7}} |} # Printable Representation, the [[Unicode]] glyphs reserved for representing control characters when it is necessary to print or display them rather than have them perform their intended function. # Control key Sequence, the traditional key sequences for inputting control characters. The caret (^) represents the "Control" or "Ctrl" key that must be held down while pressing the second key in the sequence. The caret-key representation is also used by some software to represent control characters. # The Backspace character can also be entered by pressing the "Backspace", "Bksp", or ← key on some systems. # The Delete character can also be entered by pressing the "Delete" or "Del" key. It can also be entered by pressing the "Backspace", "Bksp", or ← key on some systems. # The Escape character can also be entered by pressing the "Escape" or "Esc" key on some systems. # The Carriage Return character can also be entered by pressing the "Return", "Ret", "Enter", or ↵ key on most systems. # The ambiguity surrounding the Backspace key comes from systems that translated the DEL control character into a BS (backspace) before transmitting it. Some software was unable to process the character and would display "^H" instead. "^H" persists in messages today as a deliberate humorous device, e.g. [[there's a sucker born every minute|"there's a sucker^H^H^H^H^H^Hpotential customer born every minute"]]. A less common variant of this involves the use of "^W", which in some [[text editor|text editors]] means "delete previous word". The example sentence would therefore also work as "there's a sucker^W potential customer born every minute". ==ASCII printable characters== Code 32, the [[Space (punctuation)|"space" character]], denotes the space between words, as produced by the large space-bar of a keyboard. Codes 33 to 126, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. Seven-bit ASCII provided seven "national" characters and, if the combined hardware and software permit, can use overstrikes to simulate some additional international characters: in such a scenario a backspace can precede a [[grave accent]] (which the American and British standards, but only those standards, also call "opening single quotation mark"), a [[tilde]], or a breath mark (inverted [[vel]]). {| |- valign="top" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- !style="width: 5.5em"|Binary !style="width: 2.5em"|Dec !style="width: 2.5em"|Hex !Glyph |- |0010&nbsp;0000 |32 |20 |[[Space (punctuation)|(blank)]] (&#9248;) |- |0010&nbsp;0001 |33 |21 |[[Exclamation mark|!]] |- |0010&nbsp;0010 |34 |22 |" |- |0010&nbsp;0011 |35 |23 |[[Number sign|#]] |- |0010&nbsp;0100 |36 |24 |[[Dollar sign|$]] |- |0010&nbsp;0101 |37 |25 |[[Percent sign|%]] |- |0010&nbsp;0110 |38 |26 |[[Ampersand|&]] |- |0010&nbsp;0111 |39 |27 |[[Apostrophe (punctuation)|']] |- |0010&nbsp;1000 |40 |28 |[[Bracket|(]] |- |0010&nbsp;1001 |41 |29 |[[Bracket|)]] |- |0010&nbsp;1010 |42 |2A |[[Asterisk|*]] |- |0010&nbsp;1011 |43 |2B |[[Plus sign|+]] |- |0010&nbsp;1100 |44 |2C |[[Comma (punctuation)|,]] |- |0010&nbsp;1101 |45 |2D |[[Hyphen|-]] |- |0010&nbsp;1110 |46 |2E |[[Full stop|.]] |- |0010&nbsp;1111 |47 |2F |[[Slash (punctuation)|/]] |- |0011&nbsp;0000 |48 |30 |0 |- |0011&nbsp;0001 |49 |31 |1 |- |0011&nbsp;0010 |50 |32 |2 |- |0011&nbsp;0011 |51 |33 |3 |- |0011&nbsp;0100 |52 |34 |4 |- |0011&nbsp;0101 |53 |35 |5 |- |0011&nbsp;0110 |54 |36 |6 |- |0011&nbsp;0111 |55 |37 |7 |- |0011&nbsp;1000 |56 |38 |8 |- |0011&nbsp;1001 |57 |39 |9 |- |0011&nbsp;1010 |58 |3A |[[Colon (punctuation)|:]] |- |0011&nbsp;1011 |59 |3B |[[Semicolon|;]] |- |0011&nbsp;1100 |60 |3C |[[Less than sign|<]] |- |0011&nbsp;1101 |61 |3D |[[Equals sign|=]] |- |0011&nbsp;1110 |62 |3E |[[Greater than sign|>]] |- |0011&nbsp;1111 |63 |3F |[[Question mark|?]] |} |&nbsp; | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- valign="bottom" !style="width: 5.5em"|Bin !style="width: 2.5em"|Dec !style="width: 2.5em"|Hex !Glyph |- |0100&nbsp;0000 |64 |40 |[[@]] |- |0100&nbsp;0001 |65 |41 |A |- |0100&nbsp;0010 |66 |42 |B |- |0100&nbsp;0011 |67 |43 |C |- |0100&nbsp;0100 |68 |44 |D |- |0100&nbsp;0101 |69 |45 |E |- |0100&nbsp;0110 |70 |46 |F |- |0100&nbsp;0111 |71 |47 |G |- |0100&nbsp;1000 |72 |48 |H |- |0100&nbsp;1001 |73 |49 |I |- |0100&nbsp;1010 |74 |4A |J |- |0100&nbsp;1011 |75 |4B |K |- |0100&nbsp;1100 |76 |4C |L |- |0100&nbsp;1101 |77 |4D |M |- |0100&nbsp;1110 |78 |4E |N |- |0100&nbsp;1111 |79 |4F |O |- |0101&nbsp;0000 |80 |50 |P |- |0101&nbsp;0001 |81 |51 |Q |- |0101&nbsp;0010 |82 |52 |R |- |0101&nbsp;0011 |83 |53 |S |- |0101&nbsp;0100 |84 |54 |T |- |0101&nbsp;0101 |85 |55 |U |- |0101&nbsp;0110 |86 |56 |V |- |0101&nbsp;0111 |87 |57 |W |- |0101&nbsp;1000 |88 |58 |X |- |0101&nbsp;1001 |89 |59 |Y |- |0101&nbsp;1010 |90 |5A |Z |- |0101&nbsp;1011 |91 |5B |[[Bracket|<nowiki>[</nowiki>]] |- |0101&nbsp;1100 |92 |5C |[[Backslash|\]] |- |0101&nbsp;1101 |93 |5D |[[Bracket|<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] |- |0101&nbsp;1110 |94 |5E |[[Caret|^]] |- |0101&nbsp;1111 |95 |5F |[[Underscore|_]] |} |&nbsp; | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- valign="bottom" !style="width: 5.5em"|Bin !style="width: 2.5em"|Dec !style="width: 2.5em"|Hex !Glyph |- |0110&nbsp;0000 |96 |60 |[[Grave accent|`]] |- |0110&nbsp;0001 |97 |61 |a |- |0110&nbsp;0010 |98 |62 |b |- |0110&nbsp;0011 |99 |63 |c |- |0110&nbsp;0100 |100 |64 |d |- |0110&nbsp;0101 |101 |65 |e |- |0110&nbsp;0110 |102 |66 |f |- |0110&nbsp;0111 |103 |67 |g |- |0110&nbsp;1000 |104 |68 |h |- |0110&nbsp;1001 |105 |69 |i |- |0110&nbsp;1010 |106 |6A |j |- |0110&nbsp;1011 |107 |6B |k |- |0110&nbsp;1100 |108 |6C |l |- |0110&nbsp;1101 |109 |6D |m |- |0110&nbsp;1110 |110 |6E |n |- |0110&nbsp;1111 |111 |6F |o |- |0111&nbsp;0000 |112 |70 |p |- |0111&nbsp;0001 |113 |71 |q |- |0111&nbsp;0010 |114 |72 |r |- |0111&nbsp;0011 |115 |73 |s |- |0111&nbsp;0100 |116 |74 |t |- |0111&nbsp;0101 |117 |75 |u |- |0111&nbsp;0110 |118 |76 |v |- |0111&nbsp;0111 |119 |77 |w |- |0111&nbsp;1000 |120 |78 |x |- |0111&nbsp;1001 |121 |79 |y |- |0111&nbsp;1010 |122 |7A |z |- |0111&nbsp;1011 |123 |7B |[[Bracket|<nowiki>{</nowiki>]] |- |0111&nbsp;1100 |124 |7C |[[Vertical bar|&#124;]] |- |0111&nbsp;1101 |125 |7D |[[Bracket|<nowiki>}</nowiki>]] |- |0111&nbsp;1110 |126 |7E |[[Tilde|~]] |} |} ==Structural features== * The digits 0-9 are represented with their values in binary prefixed with 0011 (this means that [[Binary-coded decimal|bcd]]-ASCII is simply a matter of taking each bcd nibble separately and prefixing 0011 to it. * Lowercase and uppercase letters only differ in bit pattern by a single bit simplifying case conversion to a range test (to avoid converting characters that are not letters) and a single [[bitwise operation]]. ==Aliases for ASCII== RFC 1345 (published in June 1992) and the [http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets IANA registry of character sets] (ongoing), both recognize the following case-insensitive aliases for ASCII as suitable for use on the Internet: * ANSI_X3.4-1968 (canonical name) * ANSI_X3.4-1986 * ASCII * US-ASCII (preferred MIME name) * us * ISO646-US * ISO_646.irv:1991 * iso-ir-6 * IBM367 * cp367 * csASCII Of these, only the aliases "US-ASCII" and "ASCII" have achieved widespread use. One often finds them in the optional "charset" parameter in the Content-Type header of some [[MIME]] messages, in the equivalent "meta" element of some [[HTML]] documents, and in the encoding declaration part of the prolog of some [[XML]] documents. ==Variants of ASCII== As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII in order to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "ASCII [[Extended ASCII|extensions]]", although some mis-apply that term to cover all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. [[ISO 646]] (1972), the first attempt to remedy the pro-English-language bias, created compatibility problems, since it remained a 7-bit character-set. It made no additional codes available, so it reassigned some in language-specific variants. It thus became impossible to know what character a code represented without knowing which variant to work with, and text-processing systems could generally cope with only one variant anyway. Eventually, improved technology brought out-of-band means to represent the information formerly encoded in the eighth bit of each byte, freeing this bit to add another 128 additional character-codes for new assignments. For example, [[IBM]] developed 8-bit [[code page]]s, such as [[code page 437]], which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as [[smiley]] faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 bytes. Operating systems such as [[DOS]] supported these code-pages, and manufacturers of [[IBM PC]]s supported them in hardware. Eight-bit standards such as [[ISO 8859|ISO/IEC 8859]] and [[Mac OS Roman]] developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact and just adding additional values above the 7-bit range. This enabled the representation of a broader range of languages, but these standards continued to suffer from incompatibilities and limitations. Still, [[ISO-8859-1]] its variant [[Windows-1252]] (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1) and original 7-bit ASCII remain the most common character encodings in use today. [[Unicode]] and the ISO/IEC 10646 [[Universal Character Set]] (UCS) have a much wider array of characters, and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII basically uses 7-bit codes, Unicode and the UCS use relatively abstract "code points": non-negative integer numbers that map, using different encoding forms and schemes, to sequences of one or more 8-bit bytes. To permit backward compatibility, Unicode and the UCS assign the first 128 code points to the same characters as ASCII. One can therefore think of ASCII as a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of Unicode and of the UCS. The popular [[UTF-8]] encoding-form prescribes the use of one to four 8-bit code values for each code point character, and equates exactly to ASCII for the code values below 128. Other encoding forms such as [[UTF-16]] resemble ASCII in how they represent the first 128 characters of Unicode, but tend to use 16 or 32 bits per character, so they require conversion for compatibility. The [[blend (linguistics)|blend]] word ''ASCIIbetical'' has evolved to describe the [[collation]] of data in ASCII-code order rather than "standard" alphabetical order.<ref>Jargon File. [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/A/ASCIIbetical-order.html ASCIIbetical]. Accessed [[December 17]], [[2005]].</ref> The abbreviation ASCIIZ or ASCIZ refers to a [[Character string (computer science)|null-terminated ASCII string]]. ==See also== *[[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]] *[[ASCII art]] *[[ASCII game]]s *[[Text file]] *[[Bob Bemer]] *[[EBCDIC]] *[[Unicode]] *[[ASCII ribbon]] ===ASCII extensions=== (where all ASCII printable characters are identical to ASCII) *[[Extended ASCII]] *[[UTF-8]] *[[ISO 8859]] *[[ISCII]] *[[VISCII]] *[[Windows code pages]] ===ASCII variants=== (where some ASCII printable characters have been replaced) *[[ISO 646]] *[[ATASCII]] *[[PETSCII]] *[[ZX Spectrum character set]] ==References== ===For specific points=== <references/> ===General=== *[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0000.pdf Unicode.org chart on the ASCII range] * Tom Jennings ([[October 29]] [[2004]]). [http://www.wps.com/projects/codes/index.html Annotated History of Character Codes.] Accessed [[December 17]] [[2005]]. *[[Alt codes]] ==External links== <!--*[http://quickkeydotnet.sourceforge.net/ Quick Key Character Grid], a [[FOSS]] [[Application software|Application]] for [[Microsoft Windows]] inserts any character with one click. >>> not relevant to this page [[User:Chris_Chittleborough]], [[8 February]] [[2006]] --> *[http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/~sburke/stuff/pronunciation-guide.txt A pronunciation guide for ASCII characters] <!--good info but i'd like something more authoritive than a random personal website if at all possible [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 23:14, [[25 December]] [[2005]] (UTC)--> *[http://www.jimprice.com/jim-asc.htm ASCII Chart, how to send documents "in ASCII", etc]<!-- i think this can stay at least for now it doesn't seem to contain misinformation about what ASCII is or extended ASCII though there is a small issue with its "IBM PC Extended ASCII" section (its only correct for English versions and sometimes not even for those) [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 23:14, [[25 December]] [[2005]] (UTC)--> *[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online Encoder/Decoder for ASCII, HEX, Binary, Base64, etc with MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA1+2, CRC, and other hashing algorithms] <!-- note: this website originally started as a school project, I wanted to make something to help the other students in the class and I think it may really help others. I intend to stand behind this work and if you find any error please don't hesitate to notify me of them. -user:paulschou --> [[Category:5-letter acronyms]] [[Category:Character encoding]] [[Category:Character sets]] [[Category:Latin alphabet representations]] [[als:ASCII]] [[ar:ASCII]] [[ast:ASCII]] [[bg:ASCII]] [[ca:ASCII]] [[cs:ASCII]] [[da:ASCII]] [[de:ASCII]] [[el:ASCII]] [[eo:Askio]] [[es:ASCII]] [[fi:ASCII]] [[fr:American Standard Code for Information Interchange]] [[gl:ASCII]] [[he:ASCII]] [[hu:ASCII]] [[ia:ASCII]] [[id:ASCII]] [[it:ASCII]] [[ja:American Standard Code for Information Interchange]] [[ko:ASCII]] [[ku:ASCII]] [[lv:ASCII]] [[ms:ASCII]] [[nl:ASCII (tekenset)]] [[nn:ASCII]] [[no:ASCII]] [[pl:ASCII]] [[pt:ASCII]] [[ro:ASCII]] [[ru:ASCII]] [[sk:ASCII]] [[sl:ASCII]] [[sq:ASCII]] [[sr:ASCII]] [[sv:ASCII]] [[th:ASCII]] [[tr:ASCII]] [[uk:ASCII]] [[vi:ASCII]] [[zh:ASCII]] [[zh-min-nan:ASCII]] America 587 42091980 2006-03-03T19:50:49Z Acjelen 107326 revert confused vandalism '''America''' is usually meant as either: * The [[Americas]], the lands between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, usually subdivided into: **[[North America]] **[[South America]] * The [[United States]] of America ''See also: [[Americas (terminology)]], [[United_States#endnote_America|Use of the word America]], and [[Use of the word American|Use of the word American]]'' ---- America is also: * [[America, Netherlands]] in Limburg * America, a part of the parish of [[Sutton-in-the-Isle]] in Cambridgeshire, England America is the title or name of:<br/> ''Entertainment:'' * [[América (Perales song)|"América"]], a song by Spanish singer and composer [[José Luis Perales]] * [[America (Paul Simon song)|"America"]], a song by Simon and Garfunkel * [[America (Prince song)|"America"]], a song by Prince * [[America (Neil Diamond song)|"America"]], a song by [[Neil Diamond]] * [[America (band)]], a rock and roll band ** ''[[America (album)|America]]'', the title of their debut album * ''[[America (Havalina album)|America]]'', an album by the band Havalina * ''[[America (movie)|America]]'', a 1924 film directed by [[D.W. Griffith]] * ''[[America (The Book)]]'', a book written by the staff of ''The Daily Show with Jon Stewart'' * ''[[America (book)|America]]'', a book by [[Jean Baudrillard]] examining the nation sociologically * "America", a song from [[West Side Story]] by Leonard Bernstein, also performed by the UK rock group The Nice * [[America (XM)]], [[XM Satellite Radio]] channel 10 *''[[América (soap opera)|América]]'', a Brazilian telenovela (soap opera). * [[America (television station)]], an [[Argentina|Argentinian]] television station * ''[[America (magazine)|America]]'', a weekly Roman Catholic magazine ''Sports:'' * [[Club America]], Mexican football (soccer) team *[[América de Cali]], a Colombian football (soccer) team * ''[[America (yacht)|America]]'', a racing yacht that won the first ever America's Cup in 1851 ''Transportation:'' * ''[[America (airplane)|America]]'', a multi-engine airplane used by Richard E. Byrd and his crew on a 1927 transatlantic flight * ''[[America (commercial ship)|America]]'', a passenger liner commanded by [[George Fried]] involved in a famous sea rescue in 1929 * [[USS America|USS ''America'']], the name of three United States Navy ships * ''[[SS America (1940)|SS America]]'', a passenger liner owned by the United States Lines. America is an alternative title for: * [[My Country, 'Tis of Thee|"My Country, 'Tis of Thee"]], a patriotic song of the United States * [[Our America]], an essay by [[Jose Marti]] ==See also== *[[Amerika (disambiguation)]] *[[Americas#Naming of America|Naming of America]] {{disambig}} <!-- interwiki --> [[cy:America]] [[de:Amerika]] [[fr:America]] [[hr:Amerika]] [[nl:Amerika]] [[ja:アメリカ (曖昧さ回避)]] [[no:Amerika (andre betydninger)]] [[pt:América (desambiguação)]] [[sq:America]] [[sr:Америка]] [[fi:Amerikka]] [[tr:Amerika]] Africa 588 42098769 2006-03-03T20:46:07Z BanyanTree 137674 rv back to Ashmoo {{otheruses}} {{portal}} [[Image:Africa satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|280px|A satellite composite image of Africa]] '''Africa''' is the world's second-largest and second most populous [[continent]], after [[Asia]]. At about 30,370,000 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (11,730,000 [[square mile|sq mi]]) including its adjacent islands, it covers 5.9% of the [[Earth]]'s total surface area, and 20.3% of the total land area. With over 840,000,000 people (as of 2005) in 61 territories, it accounts for more than 12% of the world's [[human population]]. ==Etymology== [[Image:LocationAfrica.png|thumb|250px|World map showing Africa (geographically)]] The name '''Africa''' came into Western use through the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who used the name ''Africa terra'' — "land of the Afri" (plural, or "Afer" singular) — for the northern part of the continent, as the [[Africa (province)|province of Africa]] with its capital [[Carthage]], corresponding to modern-day [[Tunisia]]. The Afri were a tribe — possibly [[Berber]] — who dwelt in [[North Africa]] in the Carthage area. The origin of ''Afer'' may be connected with [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] ''`afar'', [[dust]] (also found in most other [[Semitic languages]]); some other etymologies that have been postulated for the ancient name 'Africa' that are much more debatable include: :*the [[Latin]] word ''aprica'', meaning "sunny"; :*the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''aphrike'', meaning "without cold" (see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]). The historian [[Leo Africanus]] ([[1495]]-[[1554]]) attributed the origin to the Greek word ''phrike'' (φρίκη, meaning "cold and horror"), combined with the negating prefix a-, so meaning a land free of cold and horror. However, the change of sound from ''ph'' to ''f'' in Greek is datable to about the [[first century]], so this is unlikely to be the origin. Ancient Africa extended into what is now known as Asia. There was no line drawn between the two continents until the geographer [[Ptolemy]] ([[85]] - [[165]] AD), accepted [[Alexandria]] as [[Prime Meridian]] and made the [[Suez Canal|isthmus of Suez]] and the [[Red Sea]] the boundary between [[Asia]] and Africa. As [[Europe]]ans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of ''Africa'' expanded with their knowledge. ==Geography== ''Main article: [[Geography of Africa]]'' [[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|250px|Africa in the [[Blue marble]] picture, with [[Antarctica]] to the south, and the [[Sahara]] and [[Arabian peninsula]] at the top of the globe]] Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the main mass of the Earth's surface. It includes within its remarkably regular outline an area, of c. 30,360,288 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (11,722,173 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]), including the islands. Separated from [[Europe]] by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the [[Suez Canal|Isthmus of Suez]] (transected by the Suez Canal), 130 km (80 miles) wide. ([[Geopolitical]]ly, [[Egypt]]'s [[Sinai Peninsula]] east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.) From the most northerly point, [[Cape Blanc]] (Ra’s al Abyad) in [[Tunisia]] (37&deg;21&prime; N), to the most southerly point, [[Cape Agulhas]] in [[South Africa]] (34&deg;51&prime;15&Prime; S), is a distance approximately of 8,000 km (5,000 miles); from [[Cap-Vert|Cape Verde]], 17&deg;33&prime;22&Prime; W, the westernmost point, to [[Ras Hafun]] in [[Somalia]], 51&deg;27&prime;52&Prime; E, the most easterly projection, is a distance (also approximately) of 7,400 km (4,600 miles). The length of coast-line is 26,000 km (16,100 miles) and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only [[1 E12 m²|9,700,000 km&sup2;]] (3,760,000 square miles), has a coast-line of 32,000 km (19,800 miles). The main structural lines of the continent show both the east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the north-to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa is thus composed of two segments at right angles, the northern running from east to west, the southern from north to south, the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two directions. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Africa]]'' [[Image:Afryka 1890.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Map of Africa 1890]] Africa is home to the [[cradle of Humankind|oldest inhabited territory]] on earth, with the [[human]] race [[mitochondrial Eve|originating]] from this continent. During the mid 20th century, [[Anthropology|anthropologists]] discovered many [[fossil]]s and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago. Fossil remains of several species of early ape-like humans thought to have [[evolve]]d into modern day man, such as ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' ([[radiometrically dated]] to 3.9-3.0 million years [[Before_Christ|BC]]), ''[[Paranthropus boisei]]'' (2.3-1.4 million BC) and ''[[Homo ergaster]]'' (c. 600,000-1.9 million BC) has been discovered. The [[Ishango Bone]], dated to c. 25,000 years ago, shows [[tally stick|tallies]] in [[mathematical notation]]. Throughout humanity's [[prehistory]], Africa (like all other continents) had no [[nation state]]s, and was instead inhabited by groups of [[hunter-gatherers]] such as the [[Khoi]] and [[San]] (formerly known as [[bushmen]]). Around 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Africa with the rise of literacy in [[Egypt]], which continued with varying levels of influence over other areas until 343 BC. Other prominent [[civilization]]s include [[Ethiopia]], the [[Nubia]]n kingdom, [[Carthage]], the kingdoms of the [[Sahelian kingdom|Sahel]] ([[Ghana Empire|Ghana]], [[Mali Empire|Mali]], and [[Songhai empire|Songhai]]) and [[Great Zimbabwe]]. In 1482, the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] established the first of many trading stations along the Guinea coast at [[Elmina]]. The chief commodities dealt in were slaves, gold, ivory and spices. The European discovery of America in 1492 was followed by a great development of the [[slave trade]], which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland trade almost exclusively, and never confined to any one continent. But at the same time that slavery was ending in Europe, in the early 19th century the European [[Imperialism|imperial]] powers staged a massive "[[scramble for Africa]]" and occupied most of the continent, creating many [[colony|colonial]] nation states, and leaving only two independent nations: [[Liberia]], the Black American colony, and [[Ethiopia]]. This occupation continued until after the conclusion of the [[World War II|Second World War]], when all colonial states gradually obtained formal independence. Today, Africa is home to over 50 independent countries, all but 2 of which still have the [[border]]s drawn up during the era of European [[colonialism]]. ==Politics== [[Image:ColonialAfrica.png|frame|''Map showing European claimants to the African continent at the beginning of [[World War I]]'']] ===Precolonial Africa=== {{sect-stub}} ===Colonial Africa=== [[Colonialism]] had a destabilizing effect on what had been a number of ethnic groups that is still being felt in African politics. Prior to European influence, national borders were not much of a concern, with Africans generally following the practice of other areas of the world, such as the Arabian peninsula, where a group's territory was congruent with its military or trade influence. The European insistence of drawing borders around territories to isolate them from those of other colonial powers often had the effect of separating otherwise contiguous political groups, or forcing traditional enemies to live side by side with no buffer between them. For example, the [[Congo River]], although it appears to be a natural geographic boundary, had groups that otherwise shared a [[language]], [[culture]] or other similarity who resided on both sides. The division of the land between [[Belgium]] and [[France]] along the river isolated these groups from each other. Those who lived in Saharan or [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and traded across the continent for centuries often found themselves crossing "borders" that existed only on European maps. In nations that had substantial European populations, for example [[Rhodesia]] and [[South Africa]], systems of second-class citizenship were often set up in order to give Europeans [[political power]] far in excess of their numbers. However, the lines were not often drawn strictly across racial lines. In [[Liberia]], the citizens who were descendants of American slaves managed to have a political system for over 100 years that gave ex-slaves and natives to the area roughly equal [[legislative power]] despite the fact the ex-slaves were outnumbered ten to one in the general population. The inspiration for this system was the [[United States Senate]], which had balanced the power of free and slave states despite the much larger population of the former. Europeans often changed the balance of power, created ethnic divides where they did not previously exist, and introduced a cultural dichotomy detrimental to the native inhabitants in the areas they controlled. For example, in what is now [[Rwanda]] and [[Burundi]], two ethnic groups [[Hutus]] and [[Tutsis]] had merged into one culture by the time Belgian colonists had taken control of the region in the 19th century. No longer divided by ethnicity as intermingling, inter-marriage, and merging of cultural practices over the centuries had long since erased visible signs of a culture divide, the Belgians instituted a policy of racial categorization, upon taking control of the region, as racial based categorization and philosophies was a fixture of the European culture of that time. The term [[Hutu]] originally referred to the agricultural-based Bantu speaking tribes that moved into present day Rwandan and Burundi from the West, and the term [[Tutsi]] referred to North Eastern cattle-based tribes that migrated into the region later. The terms to the indigenous peoples eventually came to describe a person's economic class. Those individuals who owned roughly 10 or more cattle were considered Tutsi, and those with fewer were considered Hutu, regardless of ancestral history. This was not a strict line but a general rule of thumb, and one could move from Hutu to Tutsi and vice versa. The Belgians introduced a racialised system. Those individuals who had characteristics the Europeans admired - fairer skin, ample height, narrow noses, etc. - were given power amongst the colonized peoples. The Belgians determined these features were more ideally [[Hamitic]], Hamitic in turn being more ideally European and belonged to those people closest to Tutsi in ancestry. They instituted a policy of issuing identity cards based on this philosophy. Those closest to this ideal were proclaimed Tutsi and those not were proclaimed Hutu. ===Post-colonial Africa=== Since independence, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and [[authoritarianism]]. The vast majority of African nations are [[republic]]s that operate under some form of the [[presidential system]] of rule. Few nations in Africa have been able to sustain [[Democracy|democratic]] governments, instead cycling through a series of brutal [[Coup d'état|coup]]s and [[military dictatorship]]s. A number of Africa's post-colonial political leaders were poorly educated and ignorant on matters of governance; great instability, however, was mainly the result of marginalization of other ethnic groups and graft under these leaders. As well, many used the positions of power to ignite ethnic conflicts that had been exacerbated, or even created, under colonial rule. In many countries, the [[Armed force|military]] was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order and ruled most nations in Africa during the [[1970s|70s]] and early [[1980s|80s]]. During the period from the early [[1960s]] to the late 1980s Africa had over 70 coups and 13 presidential [[assassination]]s. [[Cold War]] conflicts between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] also played a role in the instability. When a country became independent for the first time, it was often expected to align with one of the two [[superpower]]s. Many countries in [[Northern Africa]] received Soviet military aid, while many in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the [[United States]] and/or [[France]]. The 1970s saw an escalation as newly independent [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]] aligned themselves with the [[Soviet Union]] and the West and [[South Africa]] sought to contain Soviet influence. Border and territorial disputes have also been common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts. Failed government policies and political corruption have also resulted in many widespread [[famine]]s, and significant portions of Africa remain with distribution systems unable to disseminate enough food or water for the population to survive. The spread of [[disease]] is also rampant, especially the spread of the [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus]] (HIV) and the associated [[Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome]] (AIDS), which has become a deadly [[epidemic]] on the continent. Despite numerous hardships, there have been some signs the continent has hope for the future. [[Democracy|Democratic government]]s seem to be spreading, though are not yet the majority (National Geographic claims 13 African nations can be considered truly democratic). As well, many nations have at least nominally recognized basic [[human right]]s for all [[citizen]]s, though in practice these are not always recognized, and have created reasonably independent [[judiciary|judiciaries]]. There are clear signs of increased networking among African organisations and states. In the civil war in the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (former [[Zaire]]), rather than rich, non-African countries intervening, about half-a-dozen neighbouring African countries got involved (see also [[Second Congo War]]). The death toll has been estimated by some to be 3.5 million since the conflict began in 1998. This might play a role similar to that of [[World War II]] for Europe, after which the people in the neighbouring countries decide to integrate their societies in such a way that war between them becomes as unthinkable as a war between, say, [[France]] and [[Germany]] would be today. Political associations such as the [[African Union]] are also offering hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent's many countries. Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often times as a 'side-effect' of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Sudan]], and [[Côte d'Ivoire]]. ===Modern Africa=== Most western countries place limitations on aid to African nations, especially the United States. These limitations are often used to control the governments of these African nations; as a result, these nations are turning to non-traditional sources of financial aid. [[China]] has increasingly provided financial aid to Africa in order to secure contracts on [[Natural resource|natural resources]], such as [[petroleum|oil]], [[gold]], and [[diamonds]]. There usually is no political prescription. Countries the Chinese are investing in include: Central African Republic (plantations), Nigeria ([[petroleum|oil]] & [[gas]]), Sierra Leone ([[tourism]]), Gabon ([[petroleum|oil]]), Congo-Brazzaville ([[petroleum|oil]] & wood-industry), Congo ([[copper]] & [[cobalt]]), Angola ([[railroad]]-system), Libya ([[petroleum|oil]]), Sudan ([[petroleum|oil]]), Uganda ([[coffee]] & [[fishing]]-industry), Kenya ([[Telecommunication|communications]]-network), Rwanda (public works), Burundi ([[Nickel]]), Zimbabwe (infrastructure), South Africa ([[coal]] & [[gold]]). ==Economy== ''Main article: [[Economy of Africa]]'' Africa is the world's poorest inhabited continent: the [[United Nation]]s' [http://hdr.undp.org/ Human Development Report] [[2003]] (of 175 countries) found that positions 151 ([[Gambia]]) to 175 ([[Sierra Leone]]) were taken up entirely by African nations. It has had (and in some ways is still having) a shaky and uncertain transition from [[colonialism]], with increases in [[political corruption|corruption]] and [[despotism]] being major contributing factors to its poor economic situation. While rapid growth in [[China]] and now [[India]], and moderate growth in [[Latin America]], has lifted millions beyond subsistence living, Africa has gone backwards in terms of foreign [[trade]], [[investment]], and [[per capita]] [[income]]. This [[poverty]] has widespread effects, including lower [[life expectancy]], [[violence]], and [[instability]] - factors intertwined with the continent's poverty. Major economic successes are [[Botswana]] and [[South Africa]], which is developed to the extent that it has its own mature [[Johannesburg Stock Exchange|stock exchange]]. This is partly due to its wealth of [[natural resource]]s, being the world's leading producer of both [[gold]] and [[diamond]]s, and partly due to its well-established legal system. South Africa also has access to financial capital, numerous markets and skilled labor. Other African countries are making comparable progress, such as [[Ghana]], and some, like Egypt, have a longer history of commercial and economic success. [[Nigeria]] sits on one of the largest proven oil reserves in the world and has the highest population among nations in Africa, with one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. It is believed that with the country's rapidly expanding economy and increasing actions against corruption, Nigeria's status as Africa's economic powerhouse will soon be firmly established. ==Demographics== Africans may be grouped according to whether they live north or south of the [[Sahara Desert]]; these groups are called [[North African]]s and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]ns, respectively. [[Afro-Asiatic]] speaking peoples predominate in North Africa, while Sub-Saharan Africa is dominated by a number of populations grouped according to their language --[[Niger-Congo]] predominantly in West Africa, [[Nilo-Saharan]] in the Eastern highlands and [[Khoisan]] in the south. Speakers of [[Bantu languages]] (part of the Niger-Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and east Africa proper; but there are also several Nilotic groups in East Africa, and a few remaining [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|indigenous]] Khoisan ('[[San]]' or '[[Bushmen]]') and Pygmy peoples in southern and central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon and southern Somalia. In the [[Kalahari Desert]] of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "[[Khoikhoi|Hottentots]]") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. [[Pygmies]] are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa. The peoples of [[North Africa]] comprise two main groups; [[Berber]] and [[Arabic]]-speaking peoples in the west, and [[Demographics_of_Egypt#People|Egyptians]] in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century introduced the [[Arabic language]] and [[Islam]] to North Africa. The Semitic [[Phoenicia]]ns, and the European [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] settled in North Africa as well. Berbers still make up the majority in [[Morocco]], while they are a significant minority within [[Algeria]]. They are also present in [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]]. The [[Tuareg]] and other often-nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. [[Nubians]] are a [[Nilo-Saharan]]-speaking group (though many also speak Arabic), who developed an ancient civilization in Northeast Africa. During the past century or so, small but economically important colonies of [[Demographics_of_Lebanon#The_Lebanese_Diaspora|Lebanese]] and [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] have also developed in the larger coastal cities of [[West Africa|West]] and [[East Africa]], respectively. Some [[Ethiopia]]n and Eritrean groups (like the [[Amhara]] and [[Tigray]]ans, collectively known as "[[Habesha]]") have [[Semitic]] (Sabaean) ancestry. The Somalis as a people originated in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]], but most Somali clans can trace some Arab ancestry as well. [[Sudan]] and [[Mauritania]] are divided between a mostly Arabized north and a native African south (although the "Arabs" of Sudan clearly have a predominantly native African ancestry themselves). Some areas of East Africa, particularly the island of [[Zanzibar]] and the Kenyan island of Lamu, received Arab Muslim and [[Southwest Asia]]n settlers and merchants throughout the [[Middle Ages]] and in antiquity. Beginning in the [[16th century]], Europeans such as the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] began to establish [[trading post]]s and [[Fortification|forts]] along the coasts of western and southern Africa. Eventually, a large number of Dutch, augmented by French [[Huguenots]] and [[German people|Germans]] settled in what is today [[South Africa]]. Their descendants, the [[Afrikaners]] and the [[Coloureds]], are the largest European-descended groups in Africa today. In the [[19th century]], a second phase of colonization brought a large number of French and [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] settlers to Africa. The Portuguese settled mainly in Angola, but also in Mozambique. The French settled in large numbers in [[Algeria]] where they became known collectively as ''[[Pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]'', and on a smaller scale in other areas of North and West Africa as well as in Madagascar. The British settled chiefly in South Africa as well as the colony of [[Rhodesia]], and in the highlands of what is now [[Kenya]]. Germans settled in what is now [[Tanzania]] and [[Namibia]], and there is still a population of German-speaking white Namibians. Smaller numbers of European soldiers, businessmen, and officials also established themselves in administrative centers such as [[Nairobi]] and [[Dakar]]. Decolonization during the 1960s often resulted in the mass emigration of European-descended settlers out of Africa &mdash; especially from Algeria, Angola, Kenya and Rhodesia (now [[Zimbabwe]]). However, in South Africa and Namibia, the white minority remained politically dominant after independence from Europe, and a significant population of white Africans remained in these two countries even after [[liberal democracy|democracy]] was finally instituted at the end of the [[Cold War]]. South Africa has also become the preferred destination of white Anglo-Zimbabweans, and of migrants from all over southern Africa. European colonization also brought sizeable groups of [[Asians]], particularly people from the [[Indian subcontinent]], to British colonies. Large [[Indian diaspora|Indian communities]] are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and east African countries. A fairly large Indian community in [[Uganda]] was expelled by the dictator [[Idi Amin]] in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the [[Indian Ocean]] are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The [[Malagasy]] people of [[Madagascar]] are a [[Malay people]], but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as [[Coloureds]] (people with origins in two or more races and continents). ==Languages== [[Image:African language families.png|right|300px|thumb|Map showing the distribution of African language families and some major African languages. [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] extends from the [[Sahel]] to [[Southwest Asia]]. [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] is divided to show the size of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu sub-family]].]] ''Main article: [[African languages]]'' By most estimates Africa contains well over a thousand [[language]]s. There are four major [[language family|language families]] native to Africa. * The [[Afro-Asiatic languages|''Afro-Asiatic'']] languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout North Africa, [[East Africa]], the Sahel, and [[Southwest Asia]]. * The [[Nilo-Saharan languages|''Nilo-Saharan'']] language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by 30 million people. Nilo-Saharan languages are mainly spoken in [[Chad]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], and northern [[Tanzania]]. * The [[Niger-Congo languages|''Niger-Congo'']] language family covers much of Sub-Saharan Africa and is probably the largest language family in the world in terms of different languages. A substantial number of them are the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] languages spoken in much of sub-Saharan Africa. * The [[Khoisan languages|''Khoisan'']] languages number about 50 and are spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 120 000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are [[endangered language|endangered]]. The [[Khoikhoi|Khoi]] and [[Bushmen|San]] peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa. With a few notable exceptions in [[East Africa]], nearly all African countries have adopted [[official language]]s that originated outside the continent and spread through [[colonialism]] or [[human migration]]. For example, in numerous countries [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Afrikaans]] and [[Malagasy]] are other examples of originally non-African languages that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. ==Culture== Africa has a number of overlapping cultures. The most conventional distinction is that between sub-Saharan Africa and the northern countries from [[Egypt]] to [[Morocco]], who largely associate themselves with [[Arab]]ic culture. In this comparison, the nations to the south of the [[Sahara]] are considered to consist of many cultural areas, in particular that of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] linguistic group. Divisions may also be made between [[Francophone Africa]] and the rest of Africa, in particular the former British colonies of [[southern Africa|southern]] and [[East Africa]]. Another cultural fault-line is that between those Africans living traditional lifestyles and those who are essentially modern. The traditionalists are sometimes subdivided into [[pastoralism|pastoralists]] and [[agriculture|agriculturalists]]. [[African art]] reflects the diversity of African cultures. The oldest existing art from Africa are 6000-year old carvings found in [[Niger]], while the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] in [[Egypt]] was the world's tallest architectural accomplishment for four thousand years until the creation of the [[Eiffel Tower]]. The Ethiopian complex of [[monolithic church]]es at [[Lalibela]], of which the [[Church of St. George]] is representative, is regarded as another marvel of engineering. The [[music of Africa]] is one of its most dynamic art forms. Egypt has long been a cultural focus of the Arab world, while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular west Africa, was transmitted through the [[Atlantic slave trade]] to modern [[blues]], [[jazz]], [[reggae]], [[rap music|rap]], and [[rock and roll]]. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of [[soukous]], dominated by the [[music of the Democratic Republic of Congo]]. A recent development of the 21st century is the emergence of [[African hip hop]], in particular a form from [[Senegal]] is blended with traditional [[mbalax]]. Recently in South Africa, a form of music related to [[house music]] known under the name [[Kwaito]] has developed, although the country has been home to its own form of [[South African jazz]] for some time, while [[Afrikaans]] music is completely distinct and comprised mostly of traditional [[Boere musiek]], and forms of [[Folk music|Folk]] and [[Rock and roll|Rock]]. * [[List of African musicians]] * [[List of African writers]] * [[African Cinema]] * [[Afrology]] ==Religion== Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, with [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] being the most widespread. Approximately 40% of all Africans are Christians and another 40% Muslims. Roughly 20% of Africans primarily follow indigenous [[African religions]]. A small number of Africans also have beliefs [[African Jew|from the Judaic tradition]], such as the [[Beta Israel]] and [[Lemba]] tribes. The indigenous African religions tend to revolve around [[animism]] and [[ancestor worship]]. A common thread in traditional belief systems was the division of the [[spiritual world]] into "helpful" and "harmful". Helpful [[Spiritual being|spirits]] are usually deemed to include ancestor spirits that help their descendants, and powerful spirits that protected entire communities from natural disaster or attacks from enemies; whereas harmful spirits include the [[soul]]s of murdered victims who were buried without the proper [[Funeral|funeral rites]], and spirits used by hostile spirit [[Medium (spirituality)|mediums]] to cause illness among their enemies. While the effect of these early forms of worship continues to have a profound influence, belief systems have evolved as they interact with other religions. The formation of the [[Old Kingdom]] of [[Egypt]] in the [[third millennium BCE]] marked the first known complex religious system on the continent. Around the [[ninth century BCE]], [[Carthage]] (in present-day [[Tunisia]]) was founded by the Phoenicians, and went on to become a major cosmopolitan center where [[deity|deities]] from neighboring Egypt, [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] and the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan city-states]] were worshipped. The [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] officially dates from the [[fourth century]], and is thus one of the first established [[Christianity|Christian]] churches anywhere. At first Christian Orthodoxy made gains in modern-day Sudan and other neighbouring regions; however following the spread of Islam, growth was slow and restricted to the highlands. Islam entered Africa as Muslims conquered North Africa between 640 and 710, beginning with Egypt. They established Mogadishu, Melinde, Mombasa, Kilwa, and Sofala, following the sea trade down the coast of [[East Africa]], and diffusing through the Sahara desert into the interior of Africa -- following in particular the paths of Muslim traders. Muslims were also among the Asian peoples who later settled in British-ruled Africa. Many Africans were converted to [[Western Christianity|West European forms of Christianity]] during the colonial period. In the last decades of the twentieth century, various sects of [[charismatic movement|Charismatic Christianity]] rapidly grew. A number of Roman Catholic African bishops were even mentioned as possible [[Pope|papal]] candidates in 2005. African Christians appear to be more socially conservative than their co-religionists in much of the industrialized world, which has quite recently led to tensions within [[Religious denomination|denominations]] such as the [[Anglican Church|Anglican]] and [[Methodism|Methodist Churches]]. ==Territories== [[Image:Africa-regions.png|thumb|300px|Regions of Africa. Blue: North Africa, green: West Africa, brown: Central Africa, orange: Horn of Africa, magenta: East Africa, red: Southern Africa.]] [[Image:AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg|thumb|300px|Political Map of Africa]] [[Image:topography_of_africa.jpg|thumb|310px|Physical map of Africa]] ===Independent states=== '''[[East Africa]]''' East Africa proper * [[Burundi]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Kenya]] <!--* [[Mozambique]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--> * [[Rwanda]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Tanzania]] * [[Uganda]] [[North East Africa]] ([[Horn of Africa]]) * [[Djibouti]] * [[Eritrea]] * [[Ethiopia]] * [[Somalia]] (including [[Somaliland]]) '''[[Central Africa]]''' <!--* [[Angola]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--> * [[Burundi]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa) <!--* [[Cameroon]] (usually considered part of West Africa)--> * [[Central African Republic]] * [[Chad]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa) * [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] * [[Equatorial Guinea]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa) * [[Gabon]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa) * [[Rwanda]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa) * [[Republic of Congo]] <!--* [[Zambia]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--> '''[[North Africa]]''' * [[Algeria]] * [[Egypt]] * [[Libya]] * [[Mauritania]] * [[Morocco]] * [[Sudan]] * [[Tunisia]] '''[[Southern Africa]]''' * [[Angola]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Botswana]] * [[Lesotho]] * [[Malawi]] * [[Mozambique]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa) * [[Namibia]] * [[South Africa]] * [[Swaziland]] * [[Zambia]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Zimbabwe]] '''[[West Africa]]''' * [[Benin]] * [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cameroon]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Chad]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Côte d'Ivoire]] * [[Equatorial Guinea]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Gabon]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[The Gambia]] * [[Ghana]] * [[Guinea]] * [[Guinea-Bissau]] * [[Liberia]] * [[Mali]] <!--* [[Mauritania]] (usually considered part of North Africa)--> * [[Niger]] * [[Nigeria]] * [[Senegal]] * [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Togo]] '''African Island Nations''' * [[Cape Verde]] (West Africa) * [[Comoros]] (Southern Africa) * [[Madagascar]] (Southern Africa) * [[Mauritius]] (Southern Africa) * [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] (Central Africa or West Africa) * [[Seychelles]] (East Africa) ===Territories, possessions, départements=== * [[Canary Islands]] ([[Spain]]) * [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] ([[Spain]]/claimed by [[Morocco]]) * [[Madeira]] ([[Portugal]]) * [[Mayotte]] ([[France]]) * [[Réunion]] ([[France]]) * [[Saint Helena]] (including dependencies [[Ascension Island]] and [[Tristan da Cunha]]) ([[United Kingdom]]) ===Disputed territories=== * [[Western Sahara]] is claimed and mostly [[military occupation|occupied]] by [[Morocco]]. The [[Free Zone (region)|remainder]] is administered by the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]]. ===Table of territories and regions=== {| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse" |- bgcolor="#ECECEC" ! Name of territory,<br>with [[flag]] ! [[List of countries by area|Area]]<br>(km&sup2;) ! [[List of countries by population|Population]]<br>([[1 July]] [[2002]] est.) ! [[List of countries by population density|Population density]]<br>(per km&sup2;) ! [[Capital]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Eastern Africa]]{{ref|region}}''': |- | {{flagicon|Burundi}} [[Burundi]] | align="right" | 27,830 | align="right" | 6,373,002 | align="right" | 229.0 | [[Bujumbura]] |- | {{flagicon|Comoros}} [[Comoros]] | align="right" | 2,170 | align="right" | 614,382 | align="right" | 283.1 | [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]] |- | {{flagicon|Djibouti}} [[Djibouti]] | align="right" | 23,000 | align="right" | 472,810 | align="right" | 20.6 | [[Djibouti City|Djibouti]] |- | {{flagicon|Eritrea}} [[Eritrea]] | align="right" | 121,320 | align="right" | 4,465,651 | align="right" | 36.8 | [[Asmara]] |- | {{flagicon|Ethiopia}} [[Ethiopia]] | align="right" | 1,127,127 | align="right" | 67,673,031 | align="right" | 60.0 | [[Addis Ababa]] |- | {{flagicon|Kenya}} [[Kenya]] | align="right" | 582,650 | align="right" | 31,138,735 | align="right" | 53.4 | [[Nairobi]] |- | {{flagicon|Madagascar}} [[Madagascar]] | align="right" | 587,040 | align="right" | 16,473,477 | align="right" | 28.1 | [[Antananarivo]] |- | {{flagicon|Malawi}} [[Malawi]] | align="right" | 118,480 | align="right" | 10,701,824 | align="right" | 90.3 | [[Lilongwe]] |- | {{flagicon|Mauritius}} [[Mauritius]] | align="right" | 2,040 | align="right" | 1,200,206 | align="right" | 588.3 | [[Port Louis]] |- | {{flagicon|Mayotte}} [[Mayotte]] ([[France]]) | align="right" | 374 | align="right" | 170,879 | align="right" | 456.9 | [[Mamoudzou]] |- | {{flagicon|Mozambique}} [[Mozambique]] | align="right" | 801,590 | align="right" | 19,607,519 | align="right" | 24.5 | [[Maputo]] |- | {{flagicon|Réunion}} [[Réunion]] (France) | align="right" | 2,512 | align="right" | 743,981 | align="right" | 296.2 | [[Saint-Denis, Réunion|Saint-Denis]] |- | {{flagicon|Rwanda}} [[Rwanda]] | align="right" | 26,338 | align="right" | 7,398,074 | align="right" | 280.9 | [[Kigali]] |- | {{flagicon|Seychelles}} [[Seychelles]] | align="right" | 455 | align="right" | 80,098 | align="right" | 176.0 | [[Victoria, Seychelles|Victoria]] |- | {{flagicon|Somalia}} [[Somalia]] | align="right" | 637,657 | align="right" | 7,753,310 | align="right" | 12.2 | [[Mogadishu]] |- | {{flagicon|Tanzania}} [[Tanzania]] | align="right" | 945,087 | align="right" | 37,187,939 | align="right" | 39.3 | [[Dodoma]] |- | {{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Uganda]] | align="right" | 236,040 | align="right" | 24,699,073 | align="right" | 104.6 | [[Kampala]] |- | {{flagicon|Zambia}} [[Zambia]] | align="right" | 752,614 | align="right" | 9,959,037 | align="right" | 13.2 | [[Lusaka]] |- | {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} [[Zimbabwe]] | align="right" | 390,580 | align="right" | 11,376,676 | align="right" | 29.1 | [[Harare]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Middle Africa]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Angola}} [[Angola]] | align="right" | 1,246,700 | align="right" | 10,593,171 | align="right" | 8.5 | [[Luanda]] |- | {{flagicon|Cameroon}} [[Cameroon]] | align="right" | 475,440 | align="right" | 16,184,748 | align="right" | 34.0 | [[Yaoundé]] |- | {{flagicon|Central African Republic}} [[Central African Republic]] | align="right" | 622,984 | align="right" | 3,642,739 | align="right" | 5.8 | [[Bangui]] |- | {{flagicon|Chad}} [[Chad]] | align="right" | 1,284,000 | align="right" | 8,997,237 | align="right" | 7.0 | [[N'Djamena]] |- | {{flagicon|Republic of the Congo}} [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]] | align="right" | 342,000 | align="right" | 2,958,448 | align="right" | 8.7 | [[Brazzaville]] |- | {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] | align="right" | 2,345,410 | align="right" | 55,225,478 | align="right" | 23.5 | [[Kinshasa]] |- | {{flagicon|Equatorial Guinea}} [[Equatorial Guinea]] | align="right" | 28,051 | align="right" | 498,144 | align="right" | 17.8 | [[Malabo]] |- | {{flagicon|Gabon}} [[Gabon]] | align="right" | 267,667 | align="right" | 1,233,353 | align="right" | 4.6 | [[Libreville]] |- | {{flagicon|São Tomé and Príncipe}} [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] | align="right" | 1,001 | align="right" | 170,372 | align="right" | 170.2 | [[São Tomé]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Northern Africa]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Algeria}} [[Algeria]] | align="right" | 2,381,740 | align="right" | 32,277,942 | align="right" | 13.6 | [[Algiers]] |- | {{flagicon|Egypt}} [[Egypt]]{{ref|Egypt}} | align="right" | 1,001,450 | align="right" | 70,712,345 | align="right" | 70.6 | [[Cairo]] |- | {{flagicon|Libya}} [[Libya]] | align="right" | 1,759,540 | align="right" | 5,368,585 | align="right" | 3.1 | [[Tripoli]] |- | {{flagicon|Morocco}} [[Morocco]] | align="right" | 446,550 | align="right" | 31,167,783 | align="right" | 69.8 | [[Rabat]] |- | {{flagicon|Sudan}} [[Sudan]] | align="right" | 2,505,810 | align="right" | 37,090,298 | align="right" | 14.8 | [[Khartoum]] |- | {{flagicon|Tunisia}} [[Tunisia]] | align="right" | 163,610 | align="right" | 9,815,644 | align="right" | 60.0 | [[Tunis]] |- | {{flagicon|Western Sahara}} [[Western Sahara]] ([[Morocco]]){{ref|WSM}} | align="right" | 266,000 | align="right" | 256,177 | align="right" | 1.0 | [[El Aaiún]] |- | colspan=5 | ''Southern Europe dependencies in Northern Africa'': |- | [[image:Flag of the Canary Islands.png|20px]] [[Canary Islands]] ([[Spain]]){{ref|Canary}} | align="right" | 7,492 | align="right" | 1,694,477 | align="right" | 226.2 | [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]],<br />[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] |- | {{flagicon|Ceuta}} [[Ceuta]] (Spain){{ref|Spain}} | align="right" | 20 | align="right" | 71,505 | align="right" | 3,575.2 | — |- | [[image:MadeiraFlag.png|20px]] [[Madeira Islands]] ([[Portugal]]){{ref|Portugal}} | align="right" | 797 | align="right" | 245,000 | align="right" | 307.4 | [[Funchal]] |- | {{flagicon|Melilla}} [[Melilla]] (Spain){{ref|Spain}} | align="right" | 12 | align="right" | 66,411 | align="right" | 5,534.2 | — |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Southern Africa]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Botswana}} [[Botswana]] | align="right" | 600,370 | align="right" | 1,591,232 | align="right" | 2.7 | [[Gaborone]] |- | {{flagicon|Lesotho}} [[Lesotho]] | align="right" | 30,355 | align="right" | 2,207,954 | align="right" | 72.7 | [[Maseru]] |- | {{flagicon|Namibia}} [[Namibia]] | align="right" | 825,418 | align="right" | 1,820,916 | align="right" | 2.2 | [[Windhoek]] |- | {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[South Africa]] | align="right" | 1,219,912 | align="right" | 43,647,658 | align="right" | 35.8 | [[Bloemfontein]], [[Cape Town]], [[Pretoria]]{{ref|SCcaps}} |- | {{flagicon|Swaziland}} [[Swaziland]] | align="right" | 17,363 | align="right" | 1,123,605 | align="right" | 64.7 | [[Mbabane]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Western Africa]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Benin}} [[Benin]] | align="right" | 112,620 | align="right" | 6,787,625 | align="right" | 60.3 | [[Porto-Novo]] |- | {{flagicon|Burkina Faso}} [[Burkina Faso]] | align="right" | 274,200 | align="right" | 12,603,185 | align="right" | 46.0 | [[Ouagadougou]] |- | {{flagicon|Cape Verde}} [[Cape Verde]] | align="right" | 4,033 | align="right" | 408,760 | align="right" | 101.4 | [[Praia]] |- | {{flagicon|Côte d'Ivoire}} [[Côte d'Ivoire]] | align="right" | 322,460 | align="right" | 16,804,784 | align="right" | 52.1 | [[Abidjan]], [[Yamoussoukro]]{{ref|ICcaps}} |- | {{flagicon|Gambia}} [[The Gambia|Gambia]] | align="right" | 11,300 | align="right" | 1,455,842 | align="right" | 128.8 | [[Banjul]] |- | {{flagicon|Ghana}} [[Ghana]] | align="right" | 239,460 | align="right" | 20,244,154 | align="right" | 84.5 | [[Accra]] |- | {{flagicon|Guinea}} [[Guinea]] | align="right" | 245,857 | align="right" | 7,775,065 | align="right" | 31.6 | [[Conakry]] |- | {{flagicon|Guinea-Bissau}} [[Guinea-Bissau]] | align="right" | 36,120 | align="right" | 1,345,479 | align="right" | 37.3 | [[Bissau]] |- | {{flagicon|Liberia}} [[Liberia]] | align="right" | 111,370 | align="right" | 3,288,198 | align="right" | 29.5 | [[Monrovia]] |- | {{flagicon|Mali}} [[Mali]] | align="right" | 1,240,000 | align="right" | 11,340,480 | align="right" | 9.1 | [[Bamako]] |- | {{flagicon|Mauritania}} [[Mauritania]] | align="right" | 1,030,700 | align="right" | 2,828,858 | align="right" | 2.7 | [[Nouakchott]] |- | {{flagicon|Niger}} [[Niger]] | align="right" | 1,267,000 | align="right" | 10,639,744 | align="right" | 8.4 | [[Niamey]] |- | {{flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Nigeria]] | align="right" | 923,768 | align="right" | 129,934,911 | align="right" | 140.7 | [[Abuja]] |- | {{flagicon|Saint Helena}} [[Saint Helena (Britain)|Saint Helena]] ([[UK]]) | align="right" | 410 | align="right" | 7,317 | align="right" | 17.8 | [[Jamestown, Saint Helena|Jamestown]] |- | {{flagicon|Senegal}} [[Senegal]] | align="right" | 196,190 | align="right" | 10,589,571 | align="right" | 54.0 | [[Dakar]] |- | {{flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Sierra Leone]] | align="right" | 71,740 | align="right" | 5,614,743 | align="right" | 78.3 | [[Freetown]] |- | {{flagicon|Togo}} [[Togo]] | align="right" | 56,785 | align="right" | 5,285,501 | align="right" | 93.1 | [[Lomé]] |- style=" font-weight:bold; " | Total | align="right" | 30,368,609 | align="right" | 843,705,143 | align="right" | 27.8 |} ''Notes:''<br> #<small>{{note|region}} Continental regions as per [[:Image:United Nations geographical subregions.png|UN categorisations/map]].<br> #<small>{{note|Egypt}} Depending on definitions, [[Egypt]] has territory in [[transcontinental nation|one or both of]] Africa and [[Asia]].<br> #<small>{{note|WSM}} [[Western Sahara]] is claimed and mostly [[military occupation|occupied]] by [[Morocco]]. The [[Free Zone (region)|remainder]] is administered by the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]]. </small><br> #<small>{{note|Canary}} The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Canary Islands]], of which [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] are [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] are co-capitals, are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to [[Morocco]] and [[Western Sahara]]; population and area figures are for 2001.<br> #<small>{{note|Spain}} The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[exclave]] of [[Ceuta]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.<br> #<small>{{note|Portugal}} The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Madeira Islands]] are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco; population and area figures are for 2001.<br> #<small>{{note|Spain}} The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[exclave]] of [[Melilla]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.<br> #<small>{{note|SCcaps}} [[Bloemfontein]] is the judicial capital of [[South Africa]], while [[Cape Town]] is its legislative seat, and [[Pretoria]] is the country's administrative seat.<br> #<small>{{note|ICcaps}} [[Yamoussoukro]] is the official capital of [[Côte d'Ivoire]], while [[Abidjan]] is the ''[[de facto]]'' seat.<br> ==See also== {{sisterlinks|Africa}} *{{wikitravel}} *[[2005 in Africa]] - [[2006 in Africa]] *[[31st G8 summit]] *[[AIDS in Africa]] *[[African Anarchism]] *[[African philosophy]] *[[African Union]] *[[Cuisine of Africa|African cuisine]] *[[Confederation of African Football]] *[[Congo craton]] *[[Ecology of Africa]] *[[Education in Africa]] *[[History of Africa]] *[[Human rights in Africa]] *[[Regions of Africa]] *[[Sub-Saharan Africa]] *[[Universities in Africa]] *[[Heart of Africa (game)]] *[[List of African countries by population density]] *[[List of African countries by population]] *[[List of African countries by GDP]] *[[List of African stock exchanges]] ==External links== ;News * [http://allafrica.com/ allAfrica.com] current news, events and statistics * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/africa/2005/africa/default.stm BBC News In Depth - Africa 2005: Time for Change?] * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/hearafrica05/0,15756,1399090,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Hear Africa 05] ;Directories * [http://africadatabase.org/ Contemporary Africa Database] * [http://www.afrika.no/index/ The Index on Africa] directory from The Norwegian Council for Africa * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/ Open Directory Project - Africa] directory category *[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/ Columbia University - African Studies] *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/amed/ Library of Congress - African &amp; Middle Eastern Reading Room] *[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara] *[http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/su/afr/ University of Chicago - Joseph Regenstein Library: African Studies] *[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/ University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center] *[http://www.africahomepage.org/ Africa Homepage] ;Politics *[http://www.africaaction.org/index.php ''Africa Action''] Africa Action is the oldest organization in the US working on Africa affairs. It is a national organization that works for political, economic and social justice in Africa. *[http://www.zabalaza.net/texts/african_anarchism/contents.htm African Anarchism: The History of a Movement] * [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/africa/accounts/chekov.html An Irish anarchist in Africa], western Africa from anarchist perspective. * [http://www.commissionforafrica.org/english.htm Commission for Africa] * [http://www.africanfront.com African Unification Front] * [http://www.libcom.org/history/africa.php Working class history in Africa] - people's and grassroots histories ;Photos and Information *[http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/index.shtml ''Jungle Photos''] Jungle Photos Africa provides images and information on various countries in sub-Saharan Africa. *[http://www.africam.com Africam - African Wildlife Webcams] *[http://www.afrika.no/english/index.html Afrika.no News] *[http://www.afrol.com/Afrol News- African News Agency] *[http://www.ips.org/africa.shtml Inter Press Service-Africa] ;Sports *[http://www.cafonline.com/ Confederation of African Football; in English and French] ;Tourism * {{wikitravel}} {{Africa}} {{Continent}} {{Region}} <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[Category:Africa|*]] [[Category:Continents]] [[tk:Afrika]] [[af:Afrika]] [[am:አፍሪቃ]] [[ang:Africa]] [[ar:أفريقيا]] [[an:Africa]] [[ast:África]] [[az:Afrika]] [[bg:Африка]] [[zh-min-nan:Hui-chiu]] [[bn:আফ্রিকা]] [[bs:Afrika]] [[br:Afrika]] [[ca:Àfrica]] [[cs:Afrika]] [[cy:Affrica]] [[da:Afrika]] [[de:Afrika]] [[et:Aafrika]] [[el:Αφρική]] [[es:África]] [[eo:Afriko]] [[eu:Afrika]] [[fa:آفریقا]] [[fo:Afrika]] [[fr:Afrique]] [[fy:Afrika]] [[ga:An Afraic]] [[gd:Afraga]] [[gl:África]] [[gu:આફ્રિકા]] [[ko:아프리카]] [[ht:Afrik]] [[hr:Afrika]] [[io:Afrika]] [[id:Afrika]] [[ia:Africa]] [[is:Afríka]] [[it:Africa]] [[he:אפריקה]] [[jv:Afrika]] [[kn:ಆಫ್ರಿಕ]] [[ku:Efrîqa]] [[kw:Afrika]] [[sw:Afrika]] [[la:Africa]] [[lv:Āfrika]] [[lt:Afrika]] [[lb:Afrika]] [[li:Afrika]] [[hu:Afrika]] [[mk:Африка]] [[mg:Afrika]] [[mt:Afrika]] [[ms:Afrika]] [[nl:Afrika]] [[nds:Afrika]] [[ja:アフリカ]] [[no:Afrika]] [[nn:Afrika]] [[pl:Afryka]] [[pt:África]] [[ro:Africa]] [[ru:Африка]] [[se:Afrihkká]] [[sm:Aferika]] [[sa:अफ्रीका]] [[sq:Afrika]] [[sh:Afrika]] [[scn:Àfrica]] [[simple:Africa]] [[sk:Afrika]] [[sl:Afrika]] [[sr:Африка]] [[fi:Afrikka]] [[sv:Afrika]] [[tl:Aprika]] [[ta:ஆப்பிரிக்கா]] [[th:ทวีปแอฟริกา]] [[vi:Châu Phi]] [[to:Aferika]] [[tr:Afrika]] [[uk:Африка]] [[yi:אַפֿריקע]] [[zh:非洲]] [[so:Afrika]] Ashmore And Cartier Islands 589 15899120 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Ashmore_and_Cartier_Islands]] Austin 590 41665486 2006-02-28T22:56:49Z 129.186.159.125 '''Austin''' is a word that may refer to various things. '''Austin''' can also be a given name. == Places in the U.S. == '''Austin''' may be the name of a town or city in the U.S.: *[[Austin, Texas]], the capital of Texas (best known city with this name) *[[Austin, Arkansas]] *[[Austin, Colorado]] *[[Austin, Indiana]] *[[Austin, Kentucky]] *[[Austin Township, Michigan]] *[[Austin, Minnesota]] *[[Austin Township, Minnesota]] *[[Austin, Nevada]] *[[Austin, North Carolina]] *[[Austin, Pennsylvania]] *[[Austin, Utah]] *[[Port Austin, Michigan]] *[[Austinburg, Ohio]] Other places in the U.S. named '''Austin''': *[[Austin, Chicago]], a neighborhood in Chicago *[[Austin College]], a college in Sherman, Texas *[[Lake Austin]] == Places in Canada == *[[Austin Flat, British Columbia]] *[[Austin Heights, British Columbia]] *[[Austin Subdivision No 1, British Columbia]] *[[Austin Subdivision No 2, British Columbia]] *[[Austin, Manitoba]] *[[Austin, Ontario]] *[[Austin, Quebec]] == Names of people named Austin == *[[Austin Powers]], a fictional movie spy *[[Albert Austin]] *[[Herbert Austin]], Sir Herbert Austin, founder of the Austin Motor Company *[[John Austin (legal philosophy)]] *[[J. L. Austin]], philosopher *[[John Arnold Austin]], United States Navy warrant officer *[[Phil Austin]], member of the Firesign Theatre *[[Sherrie Austin]], musician *[[Stephen F. Austin]], founder of Texas *[[Steve Austin (fictional character)]], the title character in Martin Caidin's novel ''Cyborg'', which inspired the TV series "The Six Million Dollar Man" *Col. [[Steve Austin (fictional character)]], the lead character played by Lee Majors in the TV series "The Six Million Dollar Man". *[[Stone Cold Steve Austin]], a Professional wrestler turned actor *[[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]], noticeable in the English version "Austin Friars" to refer to the '''[[Augustinians|Augustinian Order]]'''. :''See also [[Jane Austen]], the author.'' == Things named Austin == *[[Austin Motor Company]], a British make of car *[[American Austin Car Company]], a short lived United States make of automobile *[[Austin (brand)]], a brand owned by the [[Kellogg Company]] *[[USS Austin (sloop)|USS ''Austin'']], a sloop-of-war (originally in the Texas Navy) *[[USS Austin (DE-15)|USS ''Austin'' (DE-15)]], a destroyer escort *[[USS Austin (LPD-4)|USS ''Austin'' (LPD-4)]], an amphibious transport dock *[[Austin elementary school]] {{disambig}} [[da:Austin]] [[de:Austin]] [[fr:Austin]] [[io:Austin]] [[it:Austin]] [[ja:オースティン (曖昧さ回避)]] [[pl:Austin]] [[ru:Остин]] [[sv:Austin]] Animated 591 15899122 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Animation]] Ascii Art 592 15899123 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[ASCII art]] Animation 593 41836622 2006-03-02T01:37:39Z Kuru 764407 revert: vanity link {{rootpage}} <div style="float: right; width: 30%; margin: 1em"> [[Image:Animexample.gif]]<br /><small>''This animation moves at 10 frames per second.''</small> <br />[[Image:Animexample2.gif]]<br /><small>''This animation moves at 2 frames per second. At this rate, the individual frames should be discernible.''</small><br />[[Image:Animhorse.gif|200px]]<br /><small>''12 frames per second is the typical rate for an [[animated cartoon]].''</small> </div> '''Animation''' is the illusion of motion created by the consecutive display of images of static elements. In film and video production, this refers to techniques by which each frame of a [[film]] or [[Film|movie]] is produced individually. These frames may be generated by computers, or by photographing a drawn or painted image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit (see [[claymation]] and [[stop motion]]), and then photographing the result with a special [[animation camera]]. When the frames are strung together and the resulting film is viewed, there is an illusion of continuous movement due to the phenomenon known as [[persistence of vision]]. Generating such a film tends to be very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly sped up the process. [[Graphics file format]]s like [[GIF]], [[MNG]], [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]] and [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]](SWF) allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the Internet. [[Image:Animexample3.png|frame|none|''The animations shown before consist of these 6 frames.'']] __TOC__ == Animation techniques == [[Traditional animation]] began with each frame being painted and then filmed. [[Traditional animation|Cel animation]], developed by [[Bray Productions|Bray]] and Hurd in the 1910s, sped up the process by using transparent overlays so that characters could be moved without the need to repaint the background for every frame. More recently, styles of animation based on painting and drawing have evolved, such as the minimalist [[Simpsons]] cartoons, or the roughly sketched [[The Snowman]]. [[Computer animation]] has advanced rapidly, and is now approaching the point where movies can be created with characters so lifelike as to be hard to distinguish from real actors. This involved a move from 2D to 3D, the difference being that in 2D animation the effect of perspective is created artistically, but in 3D objects are modeled in an internal 3D representation within the computer, and are then 'lit' and 'shot' from chosen angles, just as in real life, before being 'rendered' to a 2D bitmapped frame. Predictions that famous dead actors might even be 'brought back to life' to play in new movies before long have led to speculation about the moral and copyright issues involved. The use of computer animation as a way of achieving the otherwise impossible in conventionally shot movies has led to the term "[[computer generated imagery]]" being used, though the term has become hard to distinguish from computer animation as it is now used in referring to 3D movies that are entirely animated. Computer animation involves modelling, motion generation, followed by the addition of surfaces and then [[rendering]]. Surfaces are programmed to stretch and bend automatically in response to movements of a '[[wire frame model]]', and the final rendering converts such movements to a [[Raster graphics|bitmap image]]. It is the recent developments in rendering complex surfaces like fur and clothing textures that have enabled stunningly life-like character models, including surfaces that even ripple, fold and blow in the wind, with every fibre or hair individually calculated for rendering. However, that actually has little to do with the animation itself. Animation is the process of bringing a lifeless puppet to life through the use of motion. Many people confuse fancy effects and high-res textures with animation, but in fact life-like motion can be created using the simplest of models. Pixar's work is a testament to this. The goal of an animator is not simply to "copy" the real world, but to enhance and to take the essence of the motion that is there, and this is how animation can be elevated to the level of art. There is a large misconception in the public mind that computers create animation today. This couldn't be further from the truth. A computer is nothing more (though also nothing less) than a very expensive fancy pencil, and has to be treated as such for any quality work to be acheived. The choices a computer makes when interpolating motion are almost always the wrong ones, because the computer does not know what you are trying to create. Even if a complex physics system were created complete enough to exactly mimic the real world, the end result would not be the desirable one, because a large part of animation concerns the choices an animator makes. When a computer tries to make the choices for you, disaster is the general result. ==History== {{see|Animated cartoon|History of animation}} The major use of animation has always been for entertainment. However, there is growing use of [[instructional animation]] and [[educational animation]] to support explanation and learning. The "classic" form of animation, the "[[animated cartoon]]", as developed in the early 1900s and refined by [[Ub Iwerks]], [[Walt Disney]] and others, requires up to 24 distinct drawings for one second of animation. This technique is described in detail in the article [[Traditional animation]]. Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation for [[Television|TV]] and movies comes from professional animation studios. However, the field of [[independent animation]] has existed at least since the [[1950s]], with animation being produced by independent studios (and sometimes by a single person). Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry. [[Bill Plympton]] is one of the most well known independent animators today. [[Limited animation]] is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using "short cuts" in the animation process. This method was pioneered by [[United Productions of America|UPA]] and popularized (some say exploited) by [[Hanna-Barbera]], and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from [[movie theater]]s to [[television]]. ==Animation studios== Animation Studios, like [[Movie studio|Movie Studios]] may be production facilities, or financial entities. In some cases, especially in [[Anime]] they have things in common with [[Studio|artists studios]] where a Master or group of talented individuals oversee the work of lesser artists and crafts persons in realising their vision. ==Styles and techniques of animation== {| | style="width:20%" valign="top"| *[[Traditional animation]] **[[Character animation]] **[[Limited animation]] **[[Rotoscope|Rotoscoping]] | style="width:20%" valign="top"| *[[Computer animation]] **[[Multi-Sketch|Multi-Sketching]] **[[skeletal animation]] **[[Morph target animation]] **[[Cel-shaded animation]] **[[Onion skinning]] **[[Analog computer animation]] **[[Motion capture]] **[[Tradigital animation]] | style="width:20%" valign="top"| *[[Stop-motion animation]] **[[Cutout animation]] **[[claymation]] **[[Pixilation]] **[[Pinscreen animation]] **[[Puppetoon]] | style="width:20%" valign="top"| *[[Drawn on film animation]] *[[Special effects animation]] |} ==Branch pages== * [[Computer animation]] * [[Computer generated imagery]] * [[Traditional animation]] * [[Animated cartoon]] * [[Motion capture]] * [[Avar (animation variable)]] * [[Wire frame model]] * [[Animated series]] * [[Japanese Animation|Anime]] (Japanese animation) * [[List of animation studios]] * [[Famous names in animation]] ==See also== * [[List of film-related topics|List of motion picture topics]] * [[List of movie genres]] ==Further Readings== *[[Frank Thomas]] and [[Ollie Johnston]], [[The_Illusion_Of_Life|Disney animation: The Illusion Of Life]], Abbeville 1981 *Walters Faber, Helen Walters, Algrant (Ed.), ''Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940'', HarperCollins Publishers 2004 *Trish Ledoux, Doug Ranney, Fred Patten (Ed.), ''Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide'', Tiger Mountain Press 1997 *The Animator's Survival Kit, Richard Williams *Animation Script to Screen, Shamus Culhane *The Animation Book, Kit Laybourne ==External links== <!-- These links need annotation to distinguish the true reference sites from the ones merely using Wikipedia to drive business to their ad-supported site --> {{commons|Animation}} * [http://mag.awn.com/index.php?ltype=search&sval=jean%20ann%20wright Writing for Animation] * [http://www.awn.com/mag/issue3.2/3.2pages/3.2student.html Animating Under the Camera] * [http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf Experimental Animation Techniques] * [http://www.abc.net.au/arts/strange/workshop/style.htm Drawn Under-Camera Style Animation] * [http://www.mattworld.2ya.com Matt World - Web-based animations from animator Matt Greenwood] * [http://www.keyframeonline.com Keyframe - the Animation Resource] * [http://www.nftsanimation.org The Animation Department of the National Film and Television School UK ] * [http://www.animationnation.com Animation Nation - a forum for professional animators] * [http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rllew/chronint.html Chronology of Animation] * [http://www.fh-wuerzburg.de/petzke/zagreb.html Zagreb Film] * [http://www.safcakovec.com/ SAF], [[Cakovec|&#268;akovec]] school of animation * [http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Animation/ Animation Directory] * [http://www.toonopedia.com Don Markenstein's Toonopedia] * [http://www.bcdb.com/ Big Cartoon Database] * [http://www.goldenagecartoons.com/ Golden Age of Cartoons] * [http://www.saunalahti.fi/animato Hints and tips for the animation hobbyist] * [http://www.acmeanimation.org ACME Animation] * [http://www.awn.com Animation World Network] * [http://www.animationarena.com/principles-of-animation.html 28 Principles of Animation] * [http://www.animationmeat.com Animationmeat.com - Notes Model Sheets and Reference material by Professional Animators] * [http://www.writer2001.com/animtech.htm Media & Techniques in Animation] [[Category:Animation|Animation]] [[Category:Film]] [[bs:Animacija]] [[cs:Animovaný film]] [[de:Animation]] [[eo:animacio]] [[es:Animación]] [[et:Animatsioon]] [[fa:پویانمایی]] [[fi:Animaatio]] [[fr:Animation]] [[gl:Cine de animación]] [[he:אנימציה]] [[hu:Animáció]] [[it:Cartone animato]] [[ja:アニメーション]] [[ko:애니메이션]] [[lv:Multiplikācija]] [[mk:Анимација]] [[nl:Animatie]] [[pl:Film animowany]] [[pt:Animação]] [[ru:Мультипликация]] [[simple:Animation]] [[sq:Animation]] [[sv:Animering]] [[th:แอนิเมชัน]] [[zh:动画]] Apollo 594 41703674 2006-03-01T04:13:14Z Tom Lougheed 450264 fixed typeo {{otheruses}} [[Image: Statue of Apollo.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Statue of Apollo at the [[British Museum]].]] In [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]], '''Apollo''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: &#913;&#960;&#972;&#955;&#955;&#969;&#957;, '''''Apóll&#333;n'''''; or &Alpha;&pi;&epsilon;&lambda;&lambda;&omega;&nu;, ''Apell&#333;n'') was a god of light, healing and poetry. Apollo was the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and the twin brother of [[Artemis]], goddess of the hunt. As the prophetic deity of the [[Delphic Sibyl|Delphic Oracle]], Apollo was one of the most important and many-sided of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]]. In [[Etruscan mythology]], he was known as [[Aplu]]. In later times, Apollo became partly confused or equated with [[Helios]], [[solar deity|god of the sun]], and his sister similarly equated with [[Selene]], [[lunar deity|god of the moon]], particularly in religious contexts. However, Apollo and Helios remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts. ==Domains and symbols== [[Image:Apollo II (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|left|200px|Apollo, the son of [[Zeus]] and the mortal [[Leto]].]] Apollo was considered to have dominion over disease, beauty, light, healing, [[colony|colonists]], [[medicine]], [[archery]], [[poetry]], [[prophecy]], [[dance]], [[reason]], [[intellectualism]], and [[shaman]]s, and was the patron defender of herds and flocks. Apollo's most common attributes were the lyre and the bow. Other attributes of his included the [[kithara]] (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]) and [[plectrum]]. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The [[Pythian Games]] were held in Apollo's honor every four years at [[Delphi]]. The [[laurel tree|laurel]] bay plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games. The palm-tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in [[Delos]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins and roe, swans and grasshoppers (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows and snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice, and [[griffin]]s, mythical eagle-lion hybrids of Eastern origin. As god of colonization, Apollo gave guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, [[750 BC|750&ndash;550 BC]]. According to Greek tradition, he helped [[Crete|Cretan]] or [[Arcadia]]n colonists find the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: [[Hittites|Hittite]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts mention a Minor Asian god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of ''Wilusa'', which is now regarded as being identical with the Greek [[Troy|Illios]] by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a [[folk etymology]]). Apollo popularly (e.g., in [[literary criticism]]) represents harmony, order, and reasons&mdash;characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who popularly represents emotion and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives ''[[Apollonian]]'' and ''[[Dionysian]]''. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphi Oracle to Dionysus. ==Worship== Apollo had a famous [[oracle]] in [[Delphi]], and other notable ones in [[Clarus]] and [[Branchidae]]. Apollo is known as the leader of the [[Muse]]s ('''''musagetes''''') and director of their choir. Hymns sung to Apollo were called [[Paean]]s. The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. There is a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the [[Roman Kingdom|kings]] during the reign of [[Tarquinius Superbus]]. In [[430]], a temple was dedicated to Apollo on the occasion of a pestilence. During the [[Second Punic War]] in [[212]], the Ludi Apollinares were instituted in his honor. In the time of [[Augustus]], who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, His worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the [[battle of Actium]], Augustus enlarged his old temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple on the Palatine hill and transferred the secular games, for which Horace composed his ''Carmen Saeculare'', to Apollo and [[Diana]]. The chief festivals held in honour of Apollo were the [[Carneia]], [[Daphnephoria]], [[Delia]], [[Hyacinthia]], [[Pyanepsia]], [[Pythia]] and [[Thargelia]]. The [[Ludi Apollinares]] were solemn games held to honor him. The worship of Apollo has returned with the rise of [[revivalism|revivalist]] [[Hellenic polytheism]], and the contemporary Pagan movement. One example of this revival is the group [http://winterscapes.com/kyklosapollon Kyklos Apollon]. Also, together with Athena, Apollo (under the name Phevos) was controversially designated as a mascot of the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. ==Etymology== The name ''Apollo'' might have been derived from a Pre-Hellenic compound ''Apo-ollon'',{{fact}} likely related to an archaic verb ''Apo-ell-'' and literally meaning "he who elbows off", that is "the Dispelling One." Indeed, he seems to have personified dispelling power, which would relate to his association with the darkness-dispelling power of the morning sun and the conceived power of reason and prophecy to dispel doubt and ignorance. In addition: * The apparent expelling character of city walls and doorways as bulwarks against trespassers * The people-dispelling nature of disembarkations and [[expatriation]]s to colonies * The disease-dispelling character of healing * The predator-dispelling character of a shepherd tending his flocks * The pest-dispelling nature of a farmer growing crops * The power of music and the arts to dispel discord and [[barbary]] * The highly important power of fit and skilled young men to dispel intruders and invading armies * The ability of foresight into the future An explanation given by [[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' is that Apollon signified a [[unity]], since ''pollon'' meant "many," and the [[prefix]] ''a-'' was a negative. Thus, Apollon could be read as meaning "deprived of multitude." Apollo was consequently associated with the [[monad]]. [[Hesychius]] connects the name Apollo with the Doric &alpha;&pi;&epsilon;&lambda;&lambda;&alpha;, which means assembly, so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation &sigma;&eta;&kappa;&omicron;&sigmaf; ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. [[Image:Apollonmosaic.jpg|thumb|366px|right|Apollo with a radiant [[halo]] in a Roman floor mosaic, [[El Djem]], Tunisia, lare 2nd century]] == Apollo in art == In art, Apollo is usually depicted as a handsome beardless young man and often with a lyre or bow in hand. In the late 2nd century floor mosaic from [[El Djem]], Roman Thysdrus, (''illustration, right''), he is identifiable as [[Helios|Apollo Helios]] by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire. Anther haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse [http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html].The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict [[Alexander the Great]] (Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980). Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ will be beardless and haloed. == Appellations == [[Epithet]]s applied to Apollo include: *'''Phoebus''' ("shining one"), for Apollo in the context of the god of light *'''Smintheus''' ("mouse-catcher") and '''Parnopius''' ("grasshopper"), as god of the plague and defender against rats and locusts. *'''Delphinios''' ("delphinian"), meaning "of the womb", associating Apollo with ''Delphoi'' ([[Delphi]]). An [[aitiology]] in the [[Homeric hymns]] connects the epitheton to [[dolphin]]s. *'''Archegetes''', ("director of the foundation") for colonies. *'''Musagetes''' ("leader of the [[muses]]"). *'''Pythios''' ("Pythian") at [[Delphi]] *'''Apotropaeus''' ("he who averts evil") *'''Nymphegetes''' ("[[nymph]]-leader") *'''Lyceios''' and '''Lykegenes''' ("wolfish" or "of [[Lycia]]," where some postulate his cult originated) *'''Nomios''' ("wandering"), as the pastoral shepherd-god *'''Klarios''' from Doric ''klaros'' "allotment of land", for his supervision over cities and colonies. *'''Kynthios''' is another epithet, stemming from his birth on Mt. [[Cynthus]] *'''Loxias''' ("the obscure"), as Apollo a god of prophecy specifically. *'''Argurotoxos''', ("with the silver bow") for archery. *'''Aphetoros''', ("god of the bow") for archery. *'''Alexikakos''', ("restrainer of evil"), as Apollo the healer. *'''Akesios''' or '''Iatros''', "healer" == Birth == When [[Hera]] discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Hera's husband, Zeus, was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "terra-firma", or the mainland, or any island at sea. In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island, and gave birth there. The island was surrounded by swans. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo. Alternatively, Hera kidnapped [[Ilithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards long, of amber. Either way, Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo. Another version states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the 7th day (&eta;&#788;&beta;&delta;&omicron;&mu;&alpha;&gamma;&epsilon;&nu;&eta;&sigmaf;) of the month Thargelion according to Delian tradition or of the month Bysios according to Delphian tradition. The 7th and 20th, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him. == Youth == In his youth, Apollo killed the vicious dragon [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived in [[Delphi]] beside the [[Castalian Spring]], according to some because Python had attempted to rape Leto while she was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis.This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the [[Oracle]] at Delphi to give her prophesies. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. == Apollo and Admetus == When Zeus struck down Apollo's son, [[Asclepius]], with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead (and thus stealing [[Hades]]'s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the [[Cyclops]], who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to [[Tartarus]] forever, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labour as punishment, thanks to the intercession of his mother, [[Leto]]. During this time he served as shepherd for [[Admetus|King Admetus]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]]. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus. Apollo helped Admetus win [[Alcestis]], the daughtor of [[Pelias|King Pelias]] and later convinced the [[Moirae|Fates]] to let Admetus live past his time if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his elderly parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but [[Heracles]] managed to "persuade" [[Thanatos]], the god of death, to return her to the world of the living. == Apollo during the [[Trojan War]] == Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the [[Trojan War]] in rage because the Greeks had kidnapped Chryseis, the daughter of Apollo's priest. He demanded her return, and the Greeks eventually complied. When [[Diomedes]] injured [[Aeneas]] during the [[Trojan War]], Apollo rescued him. First, [[Aphrodite]] tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], who took him to [[Pergamos (troy)|Pergamos]], a sacred spot in [[Troy]]. [[Artemis]] healed Aeneas there. Apollo had aided Paris in the killing of [[Achilles]], if Paris did not accomplish the task himself. == Niobe == A Queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], [[Niobe]] boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared ([[Chloris]], usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to [[Mt. Siplyon]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river [[Achelous]]. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them. == Apollo's romantic life and children == ===Female lovers=== Apollo chased the nymph [[Daphne]], daughter of [[Peneus]], who had scorned him. His infatuation was caused by an arrow from [[Eros (god)|Eros]], who was jealous because Apollo had made fun of his archery skills. Eros also claimed to be irritated by Apollo's singing. Simultaneously, however, Eros had shot a hate arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prayed to Mother earth (alternatively, her father- a river god) to help her and he changed her into a Laurel tree, which became sacred to Apollo. Apollo had an affair with a mortal princess named [[Leucothea]], daughter of [[Orchamus]] and sister of [[Clytia]]. Leucothea loved Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day. [[Marpessa]] was kidnapped by [[Idas]] but was loved by Apollo as well. [[Zeus]] made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old. [[Castalia]] was a [[nymph]] whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dived into the spring at Delphi, at the base of [[Mt. Parnassos]], which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire poets. By [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]], Apollo had a son named [[Aristaeus]], who became the patron god of cattle, [[fruit trees]], hunting, husbandry and [[bee-keeping]]. He was also a [[culture-hero]] and taught humanity dairy skills and the use of nets and traps in hunting, as well as how to cultivate olives. With [[Hecuba]], wife of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]], Apollo had a son named [[Troilius]]. An [[oracle]] prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilius reached the age of twenty alive. He and his sister, [[Polyxena]] were ambushed and killed by [[Achilles]]. Apollo also fell in love with [[Cassandra]], daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilius' half-sister. He promised Cassandra the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gifted her with the ability to know the future, with a curse that no one would ever believe her. [[Coronis]], daughter of [[Phlegyas]], King of the [[Lapiths]], was another of Apollo's liaisons. Pregnant with [[Asclepius]], Coronis fell in love with [[Ischys]], son of [[Elatus]]. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for speading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis. As a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]] to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did. ===Male lovers=== [[Image:Hyacinthus.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Apollo and Hyacinthus'''<br>Jacopo Caraglio; 16th c. Italian engraving]] Apollo, the eternal beardless [[kouros]] himself, had the most male lovers of all the [[Greek gods]]. That was to be expected from a god who was god of the [[palaestra]], the athletic gathering place for youth who all competed [[Nudity in sport|in the nude]], a god said to represent the ideal educator and therefore the ideal [[erastes]], or lover of a boy (Sergent, p.102). All his lovers were younger than him, in the style of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|Greek pederastic relationships]] of the time. Many of Apollo's young beloveds died "accidentally", a reflection on the function of these myths as part of [[rite of passage|rites of passage]], in which the youth died in order to be reborn as an adult. [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] was one of his male lovers. Hyacinthus was a [[Sparta|Spartan]] prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair were practicing throwing the [[discus]] when Hyacinthus was struck in the head by a discus blown off course by [[Zephyrus]], who was jealous of Apollo and loved Hyacinthus as well. When Hyacinthus died, Apollo is said in some accounts to have been so filled with grief that he cursed his own immortality, wishing to join his lover in mortal death. Out of the blood of his slain lover Apollo created the [[hyacinth (flower)|hyacinth flower]] as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with ''άί'' ''άί'', meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta. One of his other liaisons was with [[Acantha]], the spirit of the [[Acanthus (genus)|acanthus]] tree. Upon his death, he was transformed into a sun-loving herb by Apollo, and his bereaved sister, Acanthis, was turned into a thistle finch by the other gods. Another male lover was [[Cyparissus]], a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave the boy a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo turned the sad boy into a [[Cupressaceae|cypress]] tree, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk. == Apollo and the Birth of [[Hermes]] == Hermes was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in Arcadia. The story is told in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to [[Hermes]]. His mother, [[Maia]], had been secretly impregnated by [[Zeus]], in a secret affair. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to [[Thessaly]], where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near [[Pylos]], covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a [[tortoise]] and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first [[lyre]]. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo became a master of the lyre and Hermes invented a kind of pipes-instrument called a [[syrinx]]. Later, Apollo exchanged a [[caduceus]] for a [[syrinx]] from Hermes. == Other stories == === Musical contests === ==== [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] ==== Once Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the [[lyre]], to a trial of skill. [[Tmolus]], the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented, and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a [[donkey]]. ==== [[Marsyas]] ==== [[Image:The Flaying of Marsyas.jpg|thumb|230px|''The Flaying of Marsyas'' by [[Titian]], c.1570-76.]] Marsyas was a [[satyr]] who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an [[aulos]] on the ground, tossed away after being invented by [[Athena]] because it made her cheeks puffy. Marsyas lost and was [[flaying|flayed]] alive in a cave near [[Calaenae]] in [[Phrygia]] for his [[hubris]] to challenge a god. His blood turned into the river Marsyas. Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive. [taken from ''MAN MYTH & MAGIC'' by Richard Cavendish] === Miscellaneous === When Zeus killed [[Asclepius]] for raising the dead and violating the natural order of things, Apollo killed the [[Cyclopes]] in response. They had fashioned Zeus' thunderbolts, which he used to kill Apollo's son, Asclepius. As punishment, he was condemned by Zeus to year's servitude to King Admetus. Apollo gave the order, through the Oracle at Delphi, for [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] to kill his mother, [[Clytemnestra]], and her lover, [[Aegisthus]]. Orestes was punished fiercely by the [[Erinyes]] for this crime. In the [[Odyssey]], [[Odysseus]] and his surviving crew landed on an island sacred to Helios the sun god, where he kept sacred cattle. Though Odysseus warned his men not to (as [[Tiresias]] and [[kirke]] had told him), they killed and ate some of the cattle and Helios had [[Zeus]] destroy the ship and all the men save [[Odysseus]]. Apollo also had a [[lyre]]-playing contest with [[Cinyras]], his son, who committed suicide when he lost. Apollo killed the [[Aloadae]] when they attempted to storm [[Mt. Olympus]]. It was also said that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the [[Hyperboreans]] during the winter months, a swan that he also lent to his beloved Hyacinthus to ride. Apollo turned [[Cephissus]] into a [[sea monster]]. '''Consorts/Children''' # Male Beloveds ## [[Acantha]] ## [[Cyparissus]] ## [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] ## [[Hymenaeus]] # Female Lovers ## [[Arsinoe (mythology)|Arsinoe]] ### [[Asclepius]] ## [[Cassandra]] ## [[Calliope]] ### [[Linus]] ### [[Orpheus]] ## [[Chione]] ### [[Philammon]] ## [[Coronis]] ### [[Asclepius]] ## [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]] ### [[Aristaeus]] ## [[Daphne]] ## [[Dryope]] ### [[Amphissus]] ## [[Hecuba]] ### [[Troilius]] ### [[Polyxena]] ## [[Leucothea]] ## [[Manto (Greek mythology)|Manto]] ### [[Mopsus]] ## [[Psamathe]] ### [[Linus]] ## [[Rhoeo]] ### [[Anius]] ## [[Terpsichore]] ### [[Linus]] ## Unknown Mother ### [[Cinyras]] ### [[Cycnus]] ### [[Phemonoe]] ## [[Urania]] ### [[Linus]] == Spoken-word myths - audio files == {| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" |- ! style="background:#ffdead;" | Apollo Myths as told by story tellers |- |[[Media:Apollo and Hyacinth - wiki.ogg|1. ''Apollo and Hyacinthus,'' read by Timothy Carter]] |- |'''Bibliography of reconstruction:''' [[Homer]], ''Illiad'' ii.595 - 600 (c. 700 BC); Various 5th century BC vase paintings; [[Palaephatus]], ''On Unbelievable Tales'' 46. Hyacinthus (330 BC); [[Apollodorus]], ''Library'' 1.3.3 (140 BC); [[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 10. 162-219 (AD 1 - 8); [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 3.1.3, 3.19.4 (AD 160 - 176); [[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images'' i.24 Hyacinthus (AD 170 - 245); [[Philostratus the Younger]], ''Images'' 14. Hyacinthus (AD 170 - 245); [[Lucian]], ''Dialogues of the Gods'' 14 (AD 170); [[First Vatican Mythographer]], 197. Thamyris et Musae |- |} ==Apollo in popular culture== In the ''[[Star Trek]]'' episode "[[Who Mourns for Adonis?]]" a man claiming to be Apollo is seen on a [[Greek]]-themed planet that [[Captain Kirk]], [[Pavel Chekov]], [[Mr. Spock]], and [[Dr. McCoy]] arrive on. In the ''[[Battlestar_Galactica|Battlestar Galactica]]'' series, one of the main characters is given the call-sign of Apollo. The song "[[Cygnus X-1 Book II: Hemispheres]]" by [[Rush (band)|Rush]] is about the struggle between the champions of the two Hemispheres, Apollo, the God of Reason, and [[Dionysus]], the God of Love. The song appears of the [[1978]] album ''[[Hemispheres (1978 album)|Hemispheres]]''. In the sixties, [[NASA]] named its [[Apollo program|Apollo Lunar program]] because Apollo was considered the god of all wisdom. Many people mistakenly believe that the rockets that carried astronauts to the Moon were called Apollo rockets; they were [[Saturn V]] rockets. == References == * [[F. L. W. Schwartz]], ''De antiquissima Apollinis Natura'' (Berlin, 1843) * [[J. A. Schönborn]], ''Über das Wesen Apollons'' (Berlin, 1854) * [[Arthur Milchhoefer]], ''Über den attischen Apollon'' (Munich, 1873) * [[Theodor Schreiber]], ''Apollon Pythoktonos'' (Leipzig, 1879) * [[W. H. Roscher]], ''Studien zur vergleichenden Mythologie der Griechen und Romer'', i. (Leipzig, 1873) * [[R. Hecker]], ''De Apollinis apud Romanos Cultu'' (Leipzig, 1879) * [[Gaston Colin]], ''Le Culte d'Apollon pythien à Athènes'' (1905) * [[Louis Dyer]], ''Studies of the Gods in Greece'' (1891) * articles in [[Pauly-Wissowa]]'s ''Realencyclopädie'', W. H. Roscher's ''Lexikon der Mythologie'', and [[Daremberg]] and [[Saglio]]'s ''Dictionnaire des antiquités'' * [[L. Preller]], ''Griechische und romische Mythologie'' (4th ed. by [[C. Robert]]) * [[J. Marquardt]], ''Römische Staalsverwaltung'', iii. * [[G. Wissowa]], ''Religion und Kultus der Romer'' (1902) * [[D. Bassi]], ''Saggio di Bibliografia mitologica'', i. ''Apollo'' (1896) * [[L. Farnell]], ''Cults of the Greek States'', iv. (1907) * [[O. Gruppe]], ''Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte'', ii. (1906) * {{1911}} * M. Bieber, 1964. ''Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art'' (Chicago) * N. Yalouris, 1980. ''The Search for Alexander'' (Boston) Exhibition. 2. For the iconography of the Alexander-Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, "Helios," Journal of the Arnerican Research Center in Egypt 2 (1963) 117-23; cf. Yalouris, no. 42. ==External links== {{commons|Apollo}} * [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/ Greek Mythology resource] * [http://www.gregoryferdinandsen.com/FCO2003/apollo.htm The Temple of Apollo, Rome] * [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ The stories of Apollo and Hyacinthus; and Apollo and Cyparissus; and Apollo and Orpheus] * [http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Apollo/MultifacetedGod.html Apollo and the Romans] {{Greek myth (Olympian)2}} {{Roman myth (major)}} [[Category:Greek gods]] [[Category:Roman gods]] [[Category:Solar gods]] [[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]] [[ar:أبولو (إله إغريقي)]] [[bg:Аполон]] [[ca:Apol·lo]] [[cs:Apollón]] [[da:Apollon]] [[de:Apollon]] [[el:Απόλλων]] [[es:Apolo]] [[eo:Apolono]] [[fr:Apollon]] [[gl:Apolo]] [[ko:아폴론]] [[hr:Apolon]] [[it:Apollo (mitologia)]] [[he:אפולו]] [[kw:Appolyn]] [[la:Apollo]] [[lt:Apolonas]] [[hu:Apollón]] [[nl:Apollo (god)]] [[ja:アポロン]] [[no:Apollon]] [[nn:Apollon]] [[pl:Apollo (mitologia)]] [[pt:Apolo (mitologia)]] [[ro:Apollo (mitologie)]] [[ru:Аполлон (мифология)]] [[sk:Apolón]] [[sl:Apolon]] [[sr:Аполон]] [[fi:Apollon]] [[sv:Apollon]] [[vi:Apollo (thần thoại)]] [[tr:Apollon]] [[uk:Аполлон]] [[zh:阿波罗]] Andre Agassi 595 41929306 2006-03-02T18:14:20Z 86.52.13.177 /* 2006 */ {{Infobox Tennis player |image= [[Image:Agassi Backhand.jpg|250px|Agassi Backhand]] |playername= Andre Agassi |country= [[United States]] |residence= [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[USA]] |datebirth= [[April 29]], [[1970]] |placebirth= [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[USA]] |height= 5'11" (180 cm) |weight= 177 lbs (80 kg) |turnedpro= [[1986]] |plays= Right |grip= |careerprizemoney= $31,006,875 |singlestitles= 60 |highestsinglesranking= No. 1 ([[April 10]], [[1995]]) |AustralianOpenresult= '''W''' (1995, 2000, 2001, 2003) |FrenchOpenresult= '''W''' (1999) |Wimbledonresult= '''W''' (1992) |USOpenresult= '''W''' (1994, 1999) |doublestitles= 1 |highestdoublesranking= No. 123 ([[August 17]], [[1992]]) }} '''Andre Kirk Agassi''', (born [[April 29]] [[1970]], in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]]) is a [[professional]] [[male]] former '''[[List of ATP number 1 ranked players|World No. 1]]''' [[tennis]] player from the [[United States]]. He has won eight [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] singles titles, and is one of only five players to have won all four Grand Slam events. He is considered among the all-time great tennis players. Agassi was married to the actress [[Brooke Shields]] from 1997 to 1999. Since 2001, he has been married to the former World No. 1 woman tennis player [[Steffi Graf]] and had two children. ==Early life== Agassi's father, (an Armenian from Iran) Emmanuel "Mike" Agassian (who represented [[Iran]] in [[boxing]] at the 1948 and 1952 [[Olympic Games]] before emigrating to the [[United States]]), was intent on having a child win all four tennis Grand Slams. He called Agassi's two older siblings "guinea pigs" in the development of his coaching techniques. He honed Andre's eye-coordination when he was an infant by hanging tennis balls above his crib. He gave Agassi paddles and balloons when he was still in a high chair. When Agassi started playing tennis, his ball collection filled 60 garbage cans with 300 balls per can, and Agassi would hit 3,000-5,000 balls every day. When Andre was five years old, he was already practicing with pros such as [[Jimmy Connors]] and [[Roscoe Tanner]]. Mike Agassi learned tennis by watching tapes of champions. Mike Agassi took a very systematic approach to the physics and psychology of tennis, and still remains active in the sport. (More information can be found in Mike Agassi's book, ''The Agassi Story''.) At age of 14, Andre was shipped off to teaching guru [[Nick Bollettieri]]'s Tennis Academy in [[Florida]]. He turned professional when he was 16. ==Tennis career== ===1986-1997=== Agassi turned professional in 1986, and won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at [[Itaparica]]. He won six further tournaments in 1988, and by December that year he had surpassed US$2 million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments – the quickest player in history to do so. As a young up-and-coming player, Agassi embraced a rebel image. He grew his hair to rock-star length, sported an ear-ring, and wore colorful shirts that pushed tennis' still-strict sartorial boundaries. He boasted of a cheeseburger-heavy diet and endorsed the Canon Rebel camera. "Image is everything" was the ad's tag line, and it became Andre's as well. Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. But he began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the [[French Open]], where he lost in four sets to the seasoned veteran player [[Andrés Gómez]]. Later that year he lost in the final of the [[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]] to another up-and-coming teenaged star, [[Pete Sampras]]. The rivalry between these two American players was to become the dominant rivalry in tennis over the rest the of the decade. In 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final where he faced his former Bollettieri Academy-mate [[Jim Courier]]. Courier emerged the victor in a dramatic rain-interrupted five-set final. Agassi chose not to play at [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] from 1988-90, and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its "predominantly-white" dress code which players at the event are required to conform to. Many observers at the time speculated that Agassi's real motivation was that his strong baseline game would not be well suited to Wimbledon's [[grass court]] surface. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about what he would wear – he eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit. He reached the quarter-finals on that occasion. To the surprise of many, Agassi's Grand Slam breakthrough came at Wimbledon in 1992, when he beat [[Goran Ivanišević]] in a tight five-set final. Following wrist surgery in 1993, Agassi came back strongly in 1994 and captured the US Open, beating [[Michael Stich]] in the final. He then captured his first [[Australian Open]] title in 1995, beating Sampras in a four-set final. He won a career-high seven titles that year and he reached the World No. 1 ranking for the first time that April. He held it for 30 weeks on that occasion through to November. He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer [[hardcourt]] circuit, which ended when he lost in the US Open final to Sampras. In 1995, Agassi won seven singles titles, the biggest being the [[Australian Open]], the [[Cincinnati Masters]], the [[Miami Masters]], and the [[Canada Masters]]. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year (72/10) (includes Davis Cup). This is slightly short of Sampras's best season, 1994, in which he (Sampras) won 77 matches and lost 12. In 1996, Agassi won the men's singles Gold Medal at the [[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], beating [[Sergi Bruguera]] of [[Spain]] in straight sets in the final. He also repeated at the [[Cincinnati Masters]] and the [[Miami Masters]]. 1997 was a poor year for Agassi. He won no top-level titles and his ranking sank to World No. 141 in November. His form was perhaps affected by the intense publicity surrounding his high-profile and turbulent relationship and marriage to actress Brooke Shields. ===1998-2004=== In 1998, Agassi rededicated himself to tennis. He shaved his balding head, began a rigorous conditioning program, and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments (a circuit for professional players ranked outside the world's top 50). Perhaps most remarkably, the one-time rebel emerged as a gracious and thoughtful athlete, looked up to by younger players. After winning matches, he took to bowing and blowing a two-handed kisses to spectators on each side of the court, a gesture seen as a rather humble acknowledgment of their support for him and for tennis. In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from No. 122 on the rankings at the start of the year, to No. 6 at the end of it, making it the highest jump into the Top 10 made by any player in tennis. He won five titles in ten finals, and finished runner-up at the [[Miami Masters]]. Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he beat [[Andrei Medvedev]] in a five-set French Open final to become only the fifth male player to have won all four Grand Slam singles titles (a feat last achieved in the 1960s by [[Roy Emerson]]). He followed this up by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras. He then won the US Open, beating [[Todd Martin]] in five sets in the final, and finished the year ranked the World No. 1. Agassi began 2000 by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating [[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] in a four-set final. He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since [[Rod Laver]] achieved the Grand Slam in 1969. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semi-finals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to [[Patrick Rafter]] in a very high quality battle considered by many to be one of the best matches ever played at Wimbledon [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742067.stm]. At the inaugural [[Tennis Masters Cup]] in [[Lisbon]], Agassi made it all the way to the final after defeating [[Marat Safin]] 6-3, 6-3 in the semifinals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest World No. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi eventually lost to [[Gustavo Kuerten]] 6-4, 6-4, 6-4. This loss allowed Kuerten to be crowned year end World No. 1. 2000 is considered by many of his fans to be a disappointing season for Agassi, as he managed to win only one tournament (2000 Australian Open). Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over [[Arnaud Clement]]. At Wimbledon, he battled Rafter again in the semi-finals and lost 8-6 in the fifth set. At the US Open he lost in the quarter-finals to Sampras in what is considered to be one of tournament's all-time greatest matches. Sampras won 6-7, 7-6, 7-6, 7-6 in a match with no breaks of serve. Agassi and Sampras' last duel came in the final of the US Open in 2002. The battle between the two veterans saw Sampras emerge victorious in four sets, and left Sampras with a 20-14 edge in their 34 career meetings. (The match in fact proved to be the last of Sampras' career. He did not play in an event on the professional tour again, and officially announced his retirement in 2003.) Agassi's US Open finish, along with his victories at the Miami Masters, [[Rome Masters]], and [[Madrid Masters]], helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end No. 2 at 32 years and 8 months. In 2003, Agassi won the eighth Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat [[Rainer Schüttler]] in straight sets in the final. In May that year, he recaptured the World No.1 ranking to become the oldest No. 1 ranked male tennis player in history at 33 years and 13 days. He held the No. 1 ranking on that occasion for 13 weeks. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, he lost in the final to [[Roger Federer]] and finished the year ranked World No. 4. In 2004, the 34-year-old Agassi won the [[Cincinnati Masters]] to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles. He became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati's storied history (the tournament began in 1899), surpassed only by [[Ken Rosewall]] who won the title in 1970 at age 35. Agassi has also won one doubles title (at the [[Cincinnati Masters]] in 1993, partnering [[Petr Korda]]). He is one of only five male players to have won all the Grand Slams – along with legends [[Don Budge]], [[Roy Emerson]], [[Rod Laver]] and [[Fred Perry]]. He is in fact the first male tennis player to win the four Grand Slams on four different surfaces. The previous players won the Australian Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open on grass courts and the French Open on [[clay court]]s; whereas Agassi won the Australian Open on [[Rebound Ace]], the French Open on clay, Wimbledon on grass, and the US Open on hardcourts. After winning [[French Open]] in 1999, Agassi became the first male tennis player to win the [[Career Golden Slam]]. Agassi also helped the United States win the [[Davis Cup]] in 1990 and 1992. He was named the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality|BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]] in 1992. Agassi has earned more than US$30 million in prize-money throughout his career, second only to Sampras. In addition to this, he also earns over US$25 million a year through endorsements, the most by any tennis player and fourth in all sports (first place is [[Tiger Woods]] at US$70 million a year). ===2005=== Agassi started off 2005 with strong runs, most of which were cut short by [[Roger Federer]]. He lost to Federer in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open and the semifinals at Dubai. He reached the quarterfinals at Indian Wells after a dominant victory over Guillermo Coria, but withdrew from his match with Lleyton Hewitt with a swollen big toe. Agassi lost in the semifinals at Miami to Federer in a tight match. Although the claycourt season is the toughest on the body, Agassi played in Rome and reached the semifinals which he lost to Coria in a tough battle. At the 2005 French Open, Agassi lost to [[Jarkko Nieminem]], in their first-round match after enduring back pain related to a pinched [[sciatic nerve]]. He lost in five sets with 6-0 in the fifth. After much media speculation about retirement, the 35-year-old Agassi won in Los Angeles and made the final at Montreal before falling to world No. 2 [[Rafael Nadal]] in three long sets that he might have won if a few points had gone differently. His coach Darren Cahill and close friend and personal trainer [[Gil Reyes]] worked with Agassi throughout the summer to prepare for the [[2005 US Open]]. Agassi made a spectacular run at the Open, beating Razvan Sabau 6-3, 6-3, 6-1, [[Ivo Karlovic]] in the second round 7-6(7-4), 7-6(7-5), 7-6(7-4); [[Tomáš Berdych]] 3-6, 6-1, 6-4, 7-6(7-2); and [[Xavier Malisse]] 6-3, 6-4, 6-7(5-7), 4-6, 6-2. His quarterfinal match against fellow American [[James Blake]] has been called one of the best matches in US Open history. After dropping the first two sets, 3-6, 3-6, Agassi took the next two, 6-3, 6-3. In the fifth set, Blake served for the match at 5-4, but Agassi broke his serve, then won the tiebreak 8-6 to secure the victory at 1:15 a.m. He defeated [[Robby Ginepri]], another rising, talented American with a consistent baseline game, in his third consecutive five-set match to earn a spot in the final against World No. 1 [[Roger Federer]]. After losing the first set 6-3, Agassi broke Federer twice to win the second, 6-2. He broke Federer again and at this point looked to be the better player. Agassi had a 30-love lead but with a few costly errors was broken to force a tiebreak, which Federer took, 7-1. Andre ran out of gas which allowed Federer to reel off five straight games. Being down 5-0 in the fourth set, Agassi held to make it 5-1 before Federer closed it out to win the championship. After the match, Agassi thanked New York for the 20 years of memories, hinting at potential retirement. However, Agassi has made clear that he will only retire on his terms, when he feels that he cannot perform at his best on the court. He will likely continue for another year, as he has qualified for the 2005 Masters Cup (which is limited to the eight best players in the world) and is scheduled to play the lead-in tournament to the 2006 Australian Open. Coming into the 2005 Masters Cup, Agassi is 29-5 on hard courts (with his only losses coming to [[Roger Federer]] and [[Rafael Nadal]]), and is 5-4 on clay (wins over Gasquet, Ljubicic, and Hrbaty, losses to Coria and Lopez). In 2005, Agassi left [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with [[Adidas]]. [http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=2116135] Hampered by a third degree ankle injury caused by several torn ligaments, Agassi lost his opening match against Nikolay Davydenko in the Masters Cup and was forced to withdraw. The withdrawal list also included Rafael Nadal, Andy Roddick, Lleyton Hewitt, and Marat Safin. ===2006=== Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of an ankle injury. Once he withdrew, he immediately requested a wildcard to enter the Delray Beach International Tennis Championships, where he eventually finished as a quarterfinalist losing to [[Guillermo Garcia Lopez]] 4-6, 2-6. He was then forced to retire from SAP Open because of a lower back injury causing him severe pain in his lower back and down his legs. He then played in the Dubai Open where he won in straight sets over [[Greg Rusedski]] in the first round before losing in straights to German [[Bjorn Phau]] in second round. Health permitting, Agassi is scheduled to play tournaments in Indian Wells and Miami to close out the winter hardcourt season. Agassi has officially said that he is skipping the entire clay season, since it burdens his body. He will do his best to be ready for Wimbledon. However, Agassi's top priority in 2006 will once again be making yet another run at the US Open in August. Expect all scheduling decisons to be made with that goal in mind. ==Playing style== Agassi employs a baseline style of play, but unlike most such players, he typically makes contact with the ball ''inside'' the baseline -- exceptionally difficult even for professionals. This is possible because of his short backswing, which also helps him return fast serves. He is also blessed with the best hand and eye coordination, rivaled only by [[Roger Federer]]. [[John McEnroe]] and others have called Agassi the best service returner ever to play professional tennis. After Agassi's rededication to tennis in 1998, he has focused more on physical conditioning than in the past and is now one of the fittest players on the tour. His upper-body strength allows him to [[bench press]] 350 lbs. He has remarkable endurance and rarely appears tired on court. As long as he is not injured, he handles long, grueling matches arguably better than any other player on the tour (even Roger Federer has been known to tire by the fifth set). Indeed, Agassi is often ready to start the next point when his opponent is catching his breath. One of his strategies is to wear down his opponents, continually putting pressure on them by returning the ball early and deep at angles. Agassi will try to stand in nearly one spot and hit the corners to make his opponent scramble. He will often pass up the winner and hit a slightly less aggressive shot to make his opponent run a little more to retrieve a few more shots. His penchant for running players around point after point has earned him the nickname "The Punisher". Agassi's biggest weakness currently is his lack of consistent speed, and players who are able to consistently hit at sharp angles with pace give him trouble. Agassi used to be one of the fastest players on tour; however, his recent injuries have forced him to consistently run his fastest selectively, usually in Grand Slams and Tennis Masters Series events. To make up for this recently-adopted weakness, Agassi generally keeps his opponent on the defense. (Federer is the only player with a long winning streak against Agassi; even Sampras lost to Agassi many times). ==Personal and family life== After a four-year courtship, Agassi married actress Brooke Shields in a lavish ceremony on [[April 19]] 1997. That February, they had filed suit against ''[[The National Enquirer]]'' claiming it printed "false and fabricated" statements: Brooke was undergoing counseling, binge-eating and taking pills; Agassi "lashed into" Brooke and he and Brooke's mother "tangled like wildcats" when she demanded a [[prenuptial agreement|prenup]]; the case was dismissed. Agassi filed for divorce, which was granted on [[April 9]], 1999. By the time the divorce was final, Agassi was dating the German tennis legend Steffi Graf. With only their mothers as witnesses, they were married at his home on [[October 22]], 2001. Their son, [[Jaden Gil Agassi|Jaden Gil]], was born 6 weeks prematurely on [[October 26]] that year. Their daughter, [[Jaz Elle Agassi|Jaz Elle]], was born on [[October 3]] [[2003]]. Agassi's older sister Rita married the former tennis legend [[Pancho Gonzales]]. In 1995, when Gonzales died in Las Vegas, Andre paid for his brother-in-law's funeral. Andre has participated in many charity organizations, and founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association, which assists the youth of Las Vegas. In 1995, he has won 1995's ATP Arthur Ashe's Humanitarian award in recognition of his efforts helping disadvantaged youth in LA. The Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation has always and will continue to fund organizations which offer programs that consistently carry out the mission of the Foundation. The Foundation's mission is to provide educational and recreational institutions and activities for abandoned, abused, and at-risk kids. The following organizations are fine examples: ===The Andre Agassi Boys & Girls Club=== In 1997, Agassi opened the Boys & Girls Club, a 25,000-square-foot facility that features an indoor basketball court, outdoor tennis courts, a computer lab, library and teen centre. It sees as many as 400 children a day in the summer and well over 2,000 during the year. Its junior tennis team, Team Agassi, includes mostly players with no previous tennis experience. As of January 2006, the team boasted four nationally ranked players as well as a number of regionally ranked players. Coached by Tim Blenkiron, the group practices regularly, attends study sessions, and often travels to play in various tournaments. The program also encourages members to respect each other and appreciate the challenges of winning and losing. A basketball program, the Agassi Stars, began in 2000. Headed by Coach Jermone Riley, the Stars are required to attend study hall sessions, write to universities they might be interested in attending, and balance athletics and education. The Foundation hopes to make these programs a college recruiting ground for kids with academic as well as athletic potential. In a community where drugs and gangs are prevalent forces, the Agassi Club promotes learning and gives kids a safe place to go after school. == Ethnicity question == Agassi's ethnicity, beyond being an American citizen, has been a subject of discussion by fans around the world. His father Mike Agassi is of [[Armenian people|Armenian]] and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] ethnicity from the state of Iran, and there have been attempts to "claim" Agassi by both the Armenian and Iranian communities in the United States and abroad. Agassi has often seemed somewhat ambivalent, for example, joking after his "All-Armenian" match against [[Sargis Sargsian]] at the US Open in 2004, "Well, I'm only half-Armenian" [http://www.boston.com/sports/other_sports/tennis/articles/2004/09/07/armenian_supremacy_for_agassi?mode=PF], though he agreed to appear in a [[PBS]] documentary about [http://www.wliw.org/productions/armenian.html Armenian-Americans]. His father has written in his book, ''The Agassi Story'', about his experience of being an outsider in Muslim Iran, but Andre has also shown interest in the Iranian aspect of his heritage, in February 2005 expressing a desire to visit Iran, which holds "a special place" in his heart.[http://www.payvand.com/news/05/feb/1171.html] ==Quotes== About Pete Sampras' retirement: "You grow up with a guy, you compete against him for so long, he's such a big part of your career, something that's pretty special, so you do have that sense of personal regret that he's not around any more. You miss having that around." During the 2005 US Open: "I've been motivated by overcoming challenge and overcoming the hurdles and obstacles that face me. There still is plenty out there to get motivated by." (from [[Mats Wilander]], asked to name the top 5 tennis players of all time; he placed Agassi, Sampras, Federer, and Borg in the top 4 (in no order) and tied McEnroe, Lendl, and Connors for fifth place): ON AGASSI: “He has some limitations, like he can’t serve and volley, yet he has won all four Slams. He has a very high energy level, quite like Borg. He is on fifth gear from the very first point. There is some abnormality in his eyes, otherwise he wouldn’t have had such a phenomenal return. He sees the ball like none else and just guides it wherever he wants to. He’s just played a Grand Slam final at 35, that tells me he wasted the first five years of his career, otherwise he couldn’t have lasted this long. No one has done more to tennis than Agassi and Borg.” ==Video games== * ''[[Andre Agassi Tennis]]'' for the [[SNES]], [[Sega Genesis]], [[Game Gear]], and [[Mobile phone]] * ''[[Agassi Tennis Generation]]'' for [[PlayStation 2|PS2]] and [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]] * ''[[Smash Court Pro Tournament]]'' for PS2 ==Grand Slam record== [[Australian Open]] *'''Singles champion: 1995, 2000, 2001, 2003 *Singles semi-finalist: 1996, 2004 *Singles quarter-finalist: 2005 [[French Open]] *'''Singles champion: 1999 *Singles finalist: 1990, 1991 *Singles semi-finalist: 1988, 1992 *Singles quarter-finalist: 1995, 2001, 2002, 2003 *Doubles quarter-finalist: 1992 [[Wimbledon]] *'''Singles champion: 1992 *Singles finalist: 1999 *Singles semi-finalist: 1995, 2000, 2001 *Singles quarter-finalist: 1991, 1993 [[U.S. Open (tennis)|U.S. Open]] *'''Singles champion: 1994, 1999 *Singles finalist: 1990, 1995, 2002, 2005 *Singles semi-finalist: 1988, 1989, 1996, 2003 *Singles quarter-finalist: 1992, 2001, 2004 ==Grand Slam finals== ===Wins (8)=== '''Year''' '''Championship''' '''Opponent in Final''' '''Score in Final''' 1992 Wimbledon Goran Ivanišević 6-7, 6-4, 6-4, 1-6, 6-4 1994 US Open Michael Stich 6-1, 7-6, 7-5 1995 Australian Open Pete Sampras 4-6, 6-1, 7-6, 6-4 1999 French Open Andrei Medvedev 1-6, 2-6, 6-4, 6-3, 6-4 1999 US Open Todd Martin 6-4, 6-7, 6-7, 6-3, 6-2 2000 Australian Open Yevgeny Kafelnikov 3-6, 6-3, 6-2, 6-4 2001 Australian Open Arnaud Clement 6-4, 6-2, 6-2 2003 Australian Open Rainer Schuettler 6-2, 6-2, 6-1 ===Runner-ups (7)=== '''Year''' '''Championship''' '''Opponent in Final''' '''Score in Final''' 1990 French Open Andres Gomez 6-3, 2-6, 6-4, 6-4 1990 US Open Pete Sampras 6-4, 6-3, 6-2 1991 French Open Jim Courier 3-6, 6-4, 2-6, 6-1, 6-4 1995 US Open Pete Sampras 6-4, 6-3, 4-6, 7-5 1999 Wimbledon Pete Sampras 6-3, 6-4, 7-5 2002 US Open Pete Sampras 6-3, 6-4, 5-7, 6-4 2005 US Open Roger Federer 6-3, 2-6, 7-6, 6-1 ==Famous matches== * US Open quarterfinal 1989: defeated [[Jimmy Connors]] 6-1, 4-6, 0-6, 6-3, 6-4. Agassi's first five-set win. At one point during a changeover, Agassi joked to his box that he was losing sets on purpose to prove that he could win in five. The previous time he played Connors was at the 1988 US Open quarterfinal in which he beat Connors convincingly and did not lose a set. * French Open final 1990: lost to [[Andrés Gómez]] 6-3, 2-6, 6-4, 6-4. Agassi's first Grand Slam final. * US Open final 1990: lost to [[Pete Sampras]] 6-4, 6-3, 6-2. The first of five Grand Slam finals contested by the top two players of their generation. * French Open final 1991: lost to [[Jim Courier]] 6-3, 4-6, 6-2, 1-6, 4-6. Blew 2 sets to 1 lead after rain delay. Many questioned if Agassi had the heart to win a major championship. * Wimbledon final 1992: defeated [[Goran Ivanišević]] 6-7(8), 6-4, 6-4, 1-6, 6-4. Agassi's first Grand Slam title occurring at the tournament no one thought he could ever win. Still his only Wimbledon championship. * Wimbledon quarterfinal 1993: lost to Pete Sampras 6-2, 6-2, 3-6, 3-6, 6-4. The first of only two 5-set matches between the two (The other was the 2000 Australian Open semis). * US Open 4th Round 1994: defeated [[Michael Chang]] 6-1, 6-7(3), 6-3, 3-6, 6-1. Outlasts Chang en route to becoming the first unseeded man to win the US Open championship in 28 years. Knocked off five seeded players along the way. First US Open title. * Australian Open 1995 final: defeated Pete Sampras 4-6, 6-1, 7-6(6), 6-4. Agassi's only Grand Slam Final victory over Sampras. * Atlanta Summer Olympics Gold Medal Match 1996: defeated [[Serge Bruguera]] 6-2, 6-3, 6-1. Demolished two-time French Open Champion to achieve important personal goal of winning an Olympic Gold Medal. * French Open 1st round: lost to [[Marat Safin]] 7-5, 5-7, 2-6, 6-3, 2-6 in what was the Russian's first Grand Slam match. Safin's win foreshadowed his win over Pete Sampras in the 2000 US Open final. * French Open final 1999: defeated [[Andrei Medvedev]] 1-6, 2-6, 6-4, 6-3, 6-4. A spectacular come-from-behind victory that completed his career Grand Slam at the "advanced" age of 29, and his return to the top of tennis after being as low as #141. Referred to as the "Miracle in Paris". Agassi has stated that he considers this his greatest moment on a tennis court. * US Open final 1999: defeated [[Todd Martin]] 6-4, 6-7(5), 6-7(2), 6-3, 6-2. Another come-from-behind thriller. * Australian Open 2000 semi-final: defeated Pete Sampras 6-4, 3-6, 6-7(0), 7-6(5), 6-1. En route to his second Australian Open crown. [[Tennis Magazine]] stated: "''This'' was Sampras-Agassi for the ages." * Wimbledon semi-final 2000: lost to [[Patrick Rafter]] 7-5, 4-6, 7-5, 4-6, 6-3. This match was universally praised for its asthetic beauty as the world's greatest baseliner battled the game's most fluid and athletic volleyer over five tense sets. * Australian Open 2001 semi-final: defeated Patrick Rafter 7-5, 2-6, 6-7(5), 6-2, 6-3. Exacted some revenge for 2000 Wimbledon semi loss to Rafter. Rallied from 2 sets to 1 down to stun Rafter in front of an energized Australian crowd. * Wimbledon semi-final 2001: lost to Patrick Rafter 2-6, 6-3, 3-6, 6-2, 8-6. Although not considered possible, the rematch topped the standard set by their encounter from the year before. * US Open 2001 quarter-final: lost to Pete Sampras 6-7(9), 7-6(2), 7-6(2), 7-6(5). Match featured no breaks of serve. Many consider this the best Agassi-Sampras match played. * US Open 2002 final: lost to Pete Sampras 6-3, 6-4, 5-7, 6-4. Sampras' final competitive match. * French Open 2003 2nd round: defeated [[Mario Ancic]] 5-7, 1-6, 6-4, 6-2, 7-5. Rallied back from two sets to love against the young and powerful Ancic to win the match. One of only six matches Agassi has won after being down two sets to love. Three of them have been at the [[French Open]]. * French Open 2004 1st round: lost to [[Jerome Haehnel]] 4-6, 6-7(4), 3-6. Shock first round loss to lowly French career journeyman. Arguably the greatest upset in French Open history. * US Open 2004 quarter-final: lost to Roger Federer 3-6, 6-2, 5-7, 6-3, 3-6. 5th set marred by record-breaking winds. By far Roger Federer's most difficult match en route to the title. * Australian Open 2005 4th round: defeated [[Joachim Johansson]] 6-7(4), 7-6(5), 7-6(3), 6-4. Won despite Johansson's world-record 51 aces. * French Open 2005 1st round: lost to [[Jarkko Nieminen]] 5-7, 6-4, 7-6, 1-6, 0-6. Possibly Agassi's last match at the French Open. He led two sets to one heading into the fourth set, but a pinched sciatic nerve hampered Agasi's movement very noticeably. Agassi limped off the court with tears in his eyes after the match. The match was a major indicator to many that Agassi's career might be coming to a close soon. * US Open 2005 quarter-final: defeated [[James Blake]] 3-6, 3-6, 6-3, 6-3, 7-6(6). Agassi had never come back from two sets down in the US Open. This was called the best match of the 2005 Open and one of the best in US Open history. * US Open 2005 semi-final: defeated [[Robby Ginepri]] in his third consecutive five-set thriller: 6-4, 5-7, 6-3, 4-6, 6-3. At 35 years old, he played his best tennis in the fifth set. * US Open 2005, final: lost to Roger Federer in his sixth US Open final. In the finale of Agassi's magic run at the Open which included 3 five-set matches in a row, Agassi met Federer and appeared to have the upper hand, being up a break in the third set with the match tied at one set each. However, Federer withstood the pressure and rallied to beat Agassi 6-3, 2-6, 7-6(1), 6-1. * Tennis Masters Cup 2005, Round Robin: lost to [[Nikolay Davydenko]] 6-4, 6-2. Agassi was suffering from a sprained ankle injured while he was playing racquetball three weeks before. Although the match itself was unremarkable, the afterward was, when one of the tournament organizers absurdly accused Agassi of faking injury and losing on purpose because he (Agassi) was playing in Shanghai. It turned out that the same injury would cause Agassi to withdraw the 2006 Australian Open. ==Titles (60)== {| {{pt}} |- bgcolor="#eeeeee" |'''Legend (Singles)''' |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" | Grand Slam (8) |- bgcolor="ffffcc" | Tennis Masters Cup (1) |- bgcolor="gold" | Olympic Gold (1) |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" | ATP Masters Series (17) |- bgcolor="#ffffff" | ATP Tour (33) |} ===Singles (60)=== {| {{pt}} |- bgcolor="#eeeeee" |'''No.''' |'''Date''' |'''Tournament''' |'''Surface''' |'''Opponent in the final''' |'''Score''' |- |1. |[[November 23]], [[1987]] |[[Itaparica]], [[Brazil]] |Hard |[[Luiz Mattar]] ([[Brazil]]) |7-6 6-2 |- |2. |[[February 15]], [[1988]] |[[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Mikael Pernfors]] ([[Sweden]]) |6-4 6-4 7-5 |- |3. |[[April 25]], [[1988]] |[[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], [[United States|USA]] |Clay |[[Jimmy Arias]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-2 |- |4. |[[May 2]], [[1988]] |[[Forest Hills]], [[United States|USA]] |Clay |[[Slobodan Zivojinovic]] ([[Yugoslavia]]) |7-5 7-6 7-5 |- |5. |[[July 11]], [[1988]] |[[Stuttgart|Stuttgart Outdoors]], [[Germany]] |Clay |[[Andres Gomez]] ([[Ecuador]]) |6-4 6-2 |- |6. |[[July 25]], [[1988]] |[[Stratton, Vermont|Stratton]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Paul Annacone]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-4 |- |7. |[[August 15]], [[1988]] |[[Livingston]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Jeff Tarango]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-4 |- |8. |[[October 2]], [[1989]] |[[Orlando, Florida]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Brad Gilbert]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-1 |- |9. |[[February 5]], [[1990]] |[[San Francisco]], [[United States|USA]] |Carpet |[[Todd Witsken]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-1 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |10. |[[March 12]], [[1990]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]]) |6-1 6-4 6 6-2 |- |11. |[[July 16]], [[1990]] |[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Jim Grabb]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-1 6-4 |- bgcolor="ffffcc" |12. |[[November 12]], [[1990]] |[[Tennis Masters Cup|Tour Championships]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]] |Carpet |[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]]) |5-7 7-6 7-5 6-2 |- |13. |[[April 1]], [[1991]] |[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Derrick Rostagno]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 1-6 6-3 |- |14. |[[July 15]], [[1991]] |[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Petr Korda]] ([[Czechoslovakia]]) |6-3 6-4 |- |15. |[[April 27]], [[1992]] |[[Atlanta]], [[United States|USA]] |Clay |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |7-5 6-4 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''16.''' |'''[[June 22]], [[1992]]''' |'''[[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]]''' |Grass |[[Goran Ivanišević]] ([[Croatia]]) |6-7 6-4 6-4 1-6 6-4 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |17. |[[July 20]], [[1992]] |[[Toronto]], [[Canada]] |Hard |[[Ivan Lendl]] ([[United States|USA]]) |3-6 6-2 6-0 |- |18. |[[January 2]], [[1993]] |[[San Francisco]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Brad Gilbert]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-7 6-2 |- |19. |[[February 22]], [[1993]] |[[Scottsdale]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |Marcos Ondruska ([[Russia]]) |6-2 3-6 6-3 |- |20. |[[February 2]], [[1994]] |[[Scottsdale]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |Luiz Mattar ([[Brazil]]) |6-4 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |21. |[[July 25]], [[1994]] |[[Toronto]], [[Canada]] |Hard |Jason Stoltenberg ([[Australia]]) |6-4 6-4 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''22.''' |'''[[August 29]], [[1994]]''' |'''[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]''' |Hard |[[Michael Stich]] ([[Germany]]) |6-1 7-6 7-5 |- |23. |[[October 17]], [[1994]] |[[Vienna]], [[Austria]] |Carpet |[[Michael Stich]] ([[Germany]]) |7-6 4-6 6-2 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |24. |[[October 31]], [[1994]] |[[Paris]], [[France]] |Carpet |[[Marc Rosset]] ([[Switzerland]]) |6-3 6-3 4-6 7-5 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''25.''' |'''[[January 16]], [[1995]]''' |'''[[Australian Open]]''' |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |4-6 6-1 7-6 6-4 |- |26. |[[February 6]], [[1995]] |[[San Jose, California|San Jose]] |Hard |[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 1-6 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |27. |[[March 13]], [[1995]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]] |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |3-6 6-2 7-6 |- |28. |[[July 17]], [[1995]] |[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]] |Hard |[[Stefan Edberg]]([[Sweden]]) |6-4 2-6 7-5 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |29. |[[July 24]], [[1995]] |[[Montreal]] |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |3-6 6-2 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |30. |[[August 7]], [[1995]] |[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]] |Hard |[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]]) |7-5 6-2 |- |31. |[[August 14]], [[1995]] |[[New Haven]] |Hard |[[Richard Krajicek]] ([[Netherlands]]) |3-6 7-6 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |32. |[[March 18]], [[1996]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]] |Hard |[[Goran Ivanišević]] ([[Croatia]]) |3-0 40-0 |- bgcolor="gold" |33. |[[July 22]], [[1996]] |[[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]], [[Atlanta]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Sergi Bruguera]] ([[Spain]]) |6-2 6-3 6-1 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |34. |[[August 5]], [[1996]] |[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]] |Hard |[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]]) |7-6 6-4 |- |35. |[[February 9]], [[1998]] |[[San Jose, California|San Jose]] |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-4 |- |36. |[[March 2]], [[1998]] |[[Scottsdale]] |Hard |[[Jason Stoltenberg]] ([[Australia]]) |6-4 7-6 |- |37. |[[July 20]], [[1998]] |[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]] |Hard |[[Scott Draper]] ([[Australia]]) |6-2 6-0 |- |38. |[[July 27]], [[1998]] |[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]] |Hard |[[Tim Henman]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]) |6-4 6-4 |- |39. |[[October 19]], [[1998]] |[[Ostrava]] |Carpet |[[Jan Kroslak]] ([[Slovakia]]) |6-2 3-6 6-3 |- |40. |[[April 5]], [[1999]] |[[Hong Kong]] |Hard |[[Boris Becker]] ([[Germany]]) |6-7 6-4 6-4 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''41.''' |'''[[May 24]], [[1999]]''' |'''[[French Open]]''' |Clay |[[Andrei Medvedev]] ([[Ukraine]]) |1-6 2-6 6-4 6-3 6-4 |- |42. |[[August 16]], [[1999]] |[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]] |Hard |[[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] ([[Russia]]) |7-6 6-1 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''43.''' |'''[[August 30]], [[1999]]''' |'''[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]''' |Hard |[[Todd Martin]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-4 6-7 6-7 6-3 6-2 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |44. |[[November 1]], [[1999]] |[[Paris]] |Carpet |[[Marat Safin]] ([[Russia]]) |7-6 6-2 4-6 6-4 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''45.''' |'''[[January 17]], [[2000]]''' |'''[[Australian Open]]''' |Hard |[[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] ([[Russia]]) |3-6 6-3 6-2 6-4 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''46.''' |'''[[January 15]], [[2001]]''' |'''[[Australian Open]]''' |Hard |[[Arnaud Clement]] ([[France]]) |6-4 6-2 6-2 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |47. |[[March 12]], [[2001]] |[[Indian Wells Masters|Indian Wells]] |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |7-6 7-5 6-1 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |48. |[[March 19]], [[2001]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]] |Hard |[[Jan-Michael Gambill]] ([[United States|USA]]) |7-6 6-1 6-0 |- |49. |[[July 23]], [[2001]] |[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]] |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]] |6-4 6-2 |- |50. |[[March 4]], [[2002]] |[[Scottsdale]] |Hard |[[Juan Balcells]] ([[Spain]]) |6-2 7-6 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |51. |[[March 18]], [[2002]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]] |Hard |[[Roger Federer]] ([[Switzerland]]) |6-3 6-3 3-6 6-4 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |52. |[[May 6]], [[2002]] |[[Rome Masters|Rome]], [[Italy]] |Clay |[[Tommy Haas]] ([[Germany]]) |6-3 6-3 6-0 |- |53. |[[July 22]], [[2002]] |[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Jan-Michael Gambill]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-4 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |54. |[[October 14]], [[2002]] |[[Madrid]], [[Spain]] |Hard |[[Jiri Novak]] ([[Czech Republic]]) |W/O |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''55.''' |'''[[January 13]], [[2003]]''' |'''[[Australian Open]]''' |Hard |[[Rainer Schuettler]] ([[Germany]]) |6-2 6-2 6-1 |- |56. |[[February 10]], [[2003]] |[[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Davide Sanguinetti]] ([[Italy]]) |6-3 6-1 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |57. |[[March 17]], [[2003]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]] |Hard |[[Carlos Moyà]] ([[Spain]]) |6-3 6-3 |- |58. |[[April 21]], [[2003]] |[[Houston]], [[United States|USA]] |Clay |[[Andy Roddick]] ([[United States|USA]]) |3-6 6-3 6-4 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |59. |[[August 2]], [[2004]] |[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Lleyton Hewitt]] ([[Australia]]) |6-3 3-6 6-2 |- |60. |[[July 31]], [[2005]] |[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Gilles Muller]] ([[Luxembourg]]) |6-4 7-5 |} ===Doubles (1)=== {| {{pt}} |- bgcolor="#eeeeee" |'''No.''' |'''Date''' |'''Tournament''' |'''Surface''' |'''Partner''' |'''Opponents in the final''' |'''Score''' |- |1. |[[August 16]], [[1993]] |[[Cincinnati Masters]] |Hard |[[Petr Korda]] ([[Czech Republic]]) |[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]]) & [[Henrik Holm]] ([[Sweden]]) |7-6 6-4 |} ===Performance timeline=== {| {{pt}} |- bgcolor="#efefef" ! Tournament !! [[2006]] !! [[2005]] !! [[2004]] !! [[2003]] !! [[2002]] !! [[2001]] !! [[2000]] !! [[1999]] !! [[1998]] !! [[1997]] !! [[1996]] !! [[1995]] !! [[1994]] !! [[1993]] !! [[1992]] !! [[1991]] !! [[1990]] |- |[[Australian Open]] |align="center"|- |align="center"|QF |align="center"|SF |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|- |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|4r |align="center"|4r |align="center"|- |align="center"|SF |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |- |[[French Open]] |align="center"| |align="center"|1r |align="center"|1r |align="center"|QF |align="center"|QF |align="center"|QF |align="center"|2r |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|1r |align="center"|- |align="center"|2r |align="center"|QF |align="center"|2r |align="center"|- |align="center"|SF |align="center"|F |align="center"|F |- |[[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] |align="center"| |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |align="center"|4r |align="center"|2r |align="center"|SF |align="center"|SF |align="center"|F |align="center"|2r |align="center"|- |align="center"|1r