import math encode = 'yes' de1 = 3 de2 = 16 decode = '0.5555555555555555555555555555555555' input2 = 'imageclaude monet impression soleil levant jpgthumbleftpximpression sunrise impression soleil levant upon returning to france in or he painted impression sunrise impression soleil levant depicting a le havre landscape it hung in the first impressionist exhibition in and is now displayed in the muse marmottanmonet paris from the paintings title art critic louis leroy coined the term quotimpressionismquot in monet and doncieux married and in moved into a house in argenteuil near the seine river they had another son michel on march madame monet died of tuberculosis in alice hosched decided to help monet by bringing up his two children together with her own they lived in poissy which monet hated in april they moved to a house in giverny eure in hautenormandie where he planted a large garden which he painted for the rest of his life monet and hosched married in in the s and s monet began quotseriesquot painting ampmdash paintings of one subject in varying light and viewpoints his first series is of rouen cathedral from different points of view and at different times of the day twenty views of the cathedral were exhibited at the durandruel gallery in he also made a series of paintings of haystacks imagemonetwaterliliespixjpgthumbrightpxwater lily pond le bassin aux nympheas monet was exceptionally fond of painting controlled nature ampmdash his own garden his water lilies his pond and his bridge he also painted up and down the banks of the river seineseine between and monet travelled to the mediterranean and painted many beautiful landscapes and seascapes such as bordighera landmarks were another subject for monet in the mediterranean his wife alice died in and his son jean died in cataracts formed on his eyes for which he underwent two surgeries in he died december and is buried in the giverny church cemetery in london the parliament effects of sun in the fog le parlement effet de brouillard sold for over united states dollarus million references httpwwwaccentsnartcomartistsclaudemonetbiographyhtml claude monets biography httpwwwtriadabggallerymonetmonetbiohtm a monet biography httpwwwfondationmonetcomukbiographieindexhtml biography at foundation claude monet girerny httpwwwallaboutartistscombiosmonethtml all about artists biography of monet httpwwwintermonetcombiographindexhtm biography of claude monet external links commonsclaude monet httpmonetuffsnet claude monet images httpwwwinseculacomrecherchedefaulthtmltypeampmotmonet claude monet httpwwwartofmonetcom art of monet web gallery and resource httpwwwibiblioorgwmpaintauthmonet monet page at webmuseum httpwwwartistquotesbizblabcommonethtm claude monet quotes httpsearchfamsforgsearchshtmlkeywordsmonet monet images at fine arts museums of san francisco httpwwwintermonetcombiographautobigbhtm claude monet by himself httpwwwhalternetgallerymonetgvhtml claude monet a virtual art gallery httpwwwelrelojdesolcomclaudemonetgalleryindexhtm claude monets paintings category birthsmonet claude category deathsmonet claude categoryfrench paintersmonet claude categoryimpressionist paintersmonet claude categorycat loversmonet claude ar bg caclaude monet daclaude monet declaude monet el esclaude monet eoclaude monet frclaude monet fyclaude monet ko hrclaude monet idclaude monet itclaude monet he ltklodas mon liclaude monet nlclaude monet ja noclaude monet plclaude monet ptclaude monet roclaude monet ru shclaude monet skclaude monet slclaude monet sr ficlaude monet svclaude monet viclaude monet zhtext revision page page titleconectivatitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernameelpinchausername idid contributor minor text xmlspacepreserveconectiva is a company founded in august that was the pioneer in the distribution of linux and open source in brazilian portuguese spanish languagespanish and english languageenglish for all of latin america besides the customized linux distribution for the latin american market conectiva develops a series of products and additional services directed to the attendance of the market demand that seeks to adopt open source tools including books manuals additional software like linux tools and embedded systems oem programs applications port training kits and the quotrevista do linuxquot linux magazine in addition the company provides consulting services training and technical support in all latin america through its own service centers and certified partners conectiva is a private company located in curitiba paran in brazil conectiva also provides development customization and professional services on a worldwide basis through its team of open source software engineers conectivas development team has expertise in amongst others the following areas linux kernel development high availability device drivers xfree network protocols firewall networkingfirewalling clustering performance analysis and optimization computer scienceoptimisation filesystems and resource management information about conectivas open source projects is available at httpconectivacom on january it was announced that mandrakesoft was acquiring conectiva for million euros million us dollars at the time on april mandrakesoft announced the decision to change name of the parent company to mandriva and their distribution name to mandriva linux although the brazilian operation would not change its name from conectiva immediately releases conectiva red hat linux parolin october conectiva red hat linux marumbi may conectiva linux guarani december conectiva linux server intel april conectiva linux server compaq alpha may conectiva linux july conectiva linux server october conectiva linux february conectiva linux server june conectiva linux desktop november conectiva linux server november conectiva linux desktop july conectiva linux server july conectiva linux desktop april conectiva linux server april conectiva linux enterprise edition ul november conectiva linux professional april conectiva linux standard april conectiva linux desktop july conectiva linux professional july conectiva linux live cd conectiva linux live cd august conectiva linux live cd beta september ftp mirrors ftpftpconectivacom ftpftpnllinuxorgpubconectiva ftpftppolinuxupveslinuxdistributionsconectiva ftpftplinuxorgukpublinuxconectiva categorylanguagespecific linux distributions categorylinux distributions deconectiva frconectiva itconectiva ptconectivatext revision page page titlecontext free grammarstitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor ipconversion scriptip contributor minor commentautomated conversioncomment text xmlspacepreserveredirect contextfree grammar text revision page page titlecomputer paintingtitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamelee daniel crockerusername idid contributor commentcomment text xmlspacepreserveredirect computer painting text revision page page titlecarthagetitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernameamericistusername idid contributor minor comment carthaginian religious practices rv by change may have been accurate but broke current sentence without citationcomment text xmlspacepreservethis article is about the ancient citystate of carthage in north africa for other uses of the word see carthage disambiguation imagecarthage locationpngrightframea map of the central mediterranean sea showing the location of carthage near modern tunis the map also shows italy and the islands of sicily sardinia and corsica carthage from the phoenician languagesphoenician qarthadasht quotnew cityquot written without vowels as qrt hdt or was an ancient city in north africa located on the eastern side of lake tunis across from the center of modern tunis in tunisia it remains a popular tourist attraction founding of carthage in bc carthage was founded by phoeniciaphoenician settlers from the city of tyre bringing with them the citygod melqart traditionally the city was founded by dido or elissa dido fled from tyre after her younger brother killed her husband to become the ruler and a number of foundation myths have survived through greek literaturegreek and roman literature see byrsa for one example in bc a treaty was signed between carthage and rome indicating a division of influence and commercial activities it is the first known source that indicated carthage had gained control over sicily and sardinia by the beginning of the th century bc carthage was the commercial center of the region a position it would retain until overthrown by the roman republic the city had conquered the territory of the old phoenician colonies such as hadrumetum utica and kerkouane and the libyan tribes spreading its control along the north african coast from modern morocco to the borders of egypt its influence had also spread into the mediterranean with control over sardinia malta the balearic islands and the western half of sicily colonies had also been established in iberian peninsulaiberia imagecarthagejpgthumbrightpxruins of carthage life in carthage carthaginian commerce the empire of carthage depended heavily on its trade with tartessos and other cities of the iberian peninsula from which it obtained vast quantities of silver and even more importantly tin ore which was essential to the manufacture of bronze objects by the civilizations of antiquity carthage followed trade routes already established by her parent city tyre when tartessos fell the carthaginian ships went directly to the primary sources of tin in the northwestern section of the iberian peninsula and further north in cornwall in the british isles other carthaginian ships went down the atlantic coast of africa and brought back gold from senegal one account has a carthaginian trading vessel exploring nigeria including identification of distinguishing geographic features such as a coastal volcano and an encounter with gorillas see hanno the navigator nonpermanent trade relations were established as far west as madeira and the canary islands and as far south as southern africa if the epic poetry of greece and the contemporary historians of imperial rome record the military opposition of carthage to the forces of the greek city states and later to rome then it is very much to the greek theatre and greek comedies that we are indebted for depictions of the generic carthaginian merchant hawking cloth pots and jewellery he was usually portrayed as an amusing scoundrel a relatively peaceful and colourful trader intent on making a profit and cheating noble but innocent greeks of every spare penny they might have diggings show evidence of all kinds of exchanges from the vast quantities of tin needed for a bronzebased metals civilization to all manner of textiles ceramics and fine metalwork before and in between the wars carthaginian merchants were in every port in the mediterranean buying and selling establishing warehouses where they could or just bargaining in openair markets after getting off their ship the etruscan language has not yet been deciphered but archaeological excavations of etruscan cities show that the etruscan civilization was for several centuries a customer and a vendor to carthage long before the rise of rome the etruscan citystates were at times both commercial partners of carthage and military allies carthaginian government carthages government was an oligarchy not unlike that of republican rome but few details are known roman writers referred to its heads of state as reges quotkingsquot punic inscriptions and grecoroman accounts show the indigenous term was sfetm quotjudgesquot the same name early rulers are given in the bible which might originally have been the title of the citys governor installed by the mother city of tyre later one sfet or two sfetm who were believed to have exercised judicial and executive but not military functions were elected annually from among the most wealthy and influential families these aristocratic families were represented in a supreme council comparable to the roman senate that had a wide range of powers however it is not known whether the sfetm were elected by this council or by an assembly of the people although the citys administration was firmly controlled by oligarchs democratic elements were to be found as well carthage had elected legislators trade unions and town meetings there was a system of checks and balances as well as public accountability the head of the admiralty would have to pay with his life for military defeat eratosthenes head of the greek library of alexandria noted that the greeks had been wrong to describe all nongreeks as barbarians since the carthaginians as well as the romans had a constitution aristotle also knew and wrote about the carthaginian constitution in his ltigtpoliticsltigt book ii chapter carthaginian religious practices carthage under the phoenicians was notorious to its neighbors for child sacrifice plutarch ca ce mentions the practice as do tertullian orosius and diodorus siculus livy and polybius do not modern archeological excavations could be taken to confirm plutarchs view in a single child cemetery called the tophet an estimated urns were deposited between bc and bc with the practice continuing until the early years of the christian period the urns contained the charred bones of newborns and in some cases the bones of fetuses and yearolds these remains have been interpreted to mean that in the cases of stillborn babies the parents would sacrifice their youngest child there is a clear correlation between the frequency of sacrifice and the wellbeing of the city in bad times war poor harvests sacrifices became more frequent indicating an increased assiduousness in seeking divine appeasement it is sometimes argued however that these bodies were merely the cremated remains of children that died naturally although in light of other canaanite evidence this seems less likely the few carthaginian texts which have survived make absolutely no mention of child sacrifice it has been argued by some modern scholars that evidence of carthaginian child sacrifice is sketchy at best and that it is far more likely to have been part of roman propaganda against the carthaginians to justify their conquest and destruction the debate is ongoing among modern archeologists and other antiquarians while the surviving punic texts mention no practices of religious sacrifice they are detailed enough to give a portrait of a very well organized caste of temple priests and acolytes performing different types of functions for a variety of prices carthage had many gods the supreme divine couple was that of tanit and baalbaalofcarthagebaal hammon priests were clean shaven unlike most of the population in the first centuries of the city ritual celebrations included rhythmic dancing derived from phoenician traditions the goddess astarte seems to have been popular in early times at the height of its cosmopolitan era carthage seems to have hosted a large array of divinities from the neighbouring civilizations of greece egypt and the etruscan citystates conflict with the greeks and romans first sicilian war carthages success led to the creation of a powerful navy to discourage both pirates and rival nations this coupled with its success and growing hegemony brought carthage into increasing conflict with the greeks the other major power contending for control of the central mediterranean the island of sicily lying at carthages doorstep became the arena on which this conflict played out from their earliest days both the greeks and phoenicians had been attracted to the large island establishing a large number of colonies and trading posts along its coasts small battles had been fought between these settlements for centuries by bc gelon the tyrant of greek syracuse italysyracuse backed in part by greek support was attempting to unite the island under his rule this imminent threat could not be ignored and carthage possibly as part of an alliance with persian empirepersia then engaged in a war with greece fielded its largest military force to date under the leadership of the general hamilcar traditional accounts give hamilcars army a strength of three hundred thousand men though these are almost certainly exaggerated it must nonetheless have been of formidable force en route to sicily however hamilcar suffered losses possibly severe due to poor weather landing at panormus modernday palermo he was then decisively defeated by gelon at the battle of himera bcbattle of himera he was either killed during the battle or committed suicide in shame the loss severely weakened carthage and the old government of entrenched nobility was ousted replaced by the carthaginian republic second sicilian war by bc carthage had recovered under a series of successful rulers it had conquered much of modern day tunisia strengthened and founded new colonies in north africa and sponsored mago barcas journey across the sahara desert and hanno the navigators journey down the african coast although in that year the iberian colonies secededampmdashcutting off carthages major supply of silver and copperampmdashhannibal mago the grandson of hamilcar began preparations to reclaim sicily while expeditions were also led into morocco and senegal and also into the atlantic oceanatlantic in bc hannibal mago set out for sicily with his force he was successful in capturing the smaller cities of selinus modern selinunte and himera before returning triumphantly to carthage with the spoils of war but the primary enemy syracuse remained untouched and in bc hannibal mago led a second carthaginian expedition this time to claim the island in its entirety this time however he met with fierce resistance and illfortune during the siege of agrigentum the carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague hannibal mago himself succumbing to it although his successor himilco successfully extended the campaign by breaking a greek siege capturing the city of gela and repeatedly defeating the army of dionysius i of syracusedionysius the new tyrant of syracuse he too was weakened by the plague and forced to sue for peace before returning to carthage in bc dionysius had regained his strength and broke the peace treaty striking at the carthaginian stronghold of motya himilco responded decisively leading an expedition which not only reclaimed motya but also captured messina italymessina finally he laid siege to syracuse itself the siege met with great success throughout bc but in bc plague again ravaged the carthaginian forces and they collapsed sicily by this time had become an obsession for carthage over the next sixty years carthaginian and greek forces engaged in a constant series of skirmishes by bc carthage had been pushed entirely into the southwest corner of the island and an uneasy peace reigned over the island third sicilian war in bc agathocles the tyrant of syracuse seized the city of messene presentday messina in bc he invaded the last carthaginian holdings on sicily breaking the terms of the current peace treaty and laid siege to agrigentumakragas hamilcar grandson of hanno the navigator led the carthaginian response and met with tremendous success by bc he controlled almost all of sicily and had laid siege to syracuse itself in desperation agathocles secretly led an expedition of men to the mainland hoping to save his rule by leading a counterstrike against carthage itself in this he was successful carthage was forced to recall hamilcar and most of his army from sicily to face the new and unexpected threat although agathocles army was eventually defeated in bc agathocles himself escaped back to sicily and was able to negotiate a peace which maintained syracuse as a stronghold of greek power in sicily pyrrhus of epirus between bc and bc pyrrhus of epirus waged two major campaigns in an effort to protect and extend the influence of the greeks in the western mediterranean one against the emerging power of the roman republic to defend the greek colonies in southern italy the other against carthage in a renewed attempt to wrest sicily wholly from their control after winning a complete victory over rome at heraclea and another complete yet very costly victory at asculum pyrrhus was soon distracted by opportunities in mainland greece which had recently been invaded by the gauls and the greeks of sicily making a temporary peace with the romans he left for sicily and between bc defeated every carthaginian force against him pyrrhus even managed to take eryx the strongest carthaginian holdout yet at lilybaeum the carthaginians were able to hold out against pyrrhus and the invader soon found that he was no longer welcome by the greek sicilians leaving once again for italy he fought the romans once more to a draw not having the resources and manpower to continue pyrrhus left for epirus for carthage this meant a return to the status quo for rome however it meant capturing tarentum and holding the entirety of italy the result was a shift in the balance of power in the western mediterranean the greeks were effectively reduced to their toehold in sicily while romes growing strength and territorial ambitions brought it directly into conflict with carthage for the first time the messanan crisis when agathocles died in bc a large company of italian mercenaries who had previously been held in his service found themselves suddenly without employment rather than leave sicily they seized the city of messana naming themselves mamertines or quotsons of marsquot they became a law unto themselves terrorizing the surrounding countryside the mamertines became a growing threat to carthage and syracuse alike in bc hiero ii of syracusehiero ii former general of pyrrhus and the new tyrant of syracuse took action against them faced with a vastly superior force the mamertines divided into two factions one advocating surrender to carthage the other preferring to seek aid from rome as a result embassies were sent to both cities while the roman senate debated the best course of action the carthaginians eagerly agreed to send a garrison to messana a carthaginian garrison was admitted to the city and a carthaginian fleet sailed into the messanan harbor however soon afterwards they began negotiating with hiero alarmed the mamertines sent another embassy to rome asking them to expel the carthaginians hieros intervention had placed carthages military forces directly across the narrow channel of water that separated sicily from italy moreover the presence of the carthaginian fleet gave them effective control over this channel the strait of messina and demonstrated a clear and present danger to nearby rome and her interests as a result the roman assembly although reluctant to ally with a band of mercenaries sent an expeditionary force to return control of messana to the mamertines the punic wars the roman attack on the carthaginian forces at messana triggered the first of the punic wars over the course of the next century these three major conflicts between rome and carthage would determine the course of western civilization the first punic war bc to bc the second punic war bc to bc the third punic war bc to bc rome consistently triumphed over carthage during the punic wars the end of the third punic war resulted in the end of carthaginian power and the complete destruction of the city by scipio aemilianus roman soldiers went from house to house slaughtering the people of carthage and enslaving any who survived carthages harbor was burned and the city razed between the first and the second punic war carthage faced a major mercenary warmercenary revolt during the mercenary revolt rome was able to acquire sardinia it is disputed whether the carthaginian farmland salting the earthwas salted following the battle of carthage roman carthage imagefollisdomitius alexandercarthage ric jpgthumbpxdomitius alexander on a follis on the reverse the personification of carthage his capital the site was too wellchosen to let it go to waste however and a new city grew up there eventually becoming the second largest city in the western half of the roman empire by the late nd century carthage was the center of the roman province of africa province roman empireafrica with a population of people it briefly became the capital of an usurper domitius alexander in carthage also became a centre of early christianity tertullian rhetorically addresses the roman governor with the fact that the christians of carthage that just yesterday were few in number now quothave filled every place among youampmdashcities islands fortresses towns marketplaces the very camp tribes companies palaces senate forum we have left nothing to you but the temples of your godsquot apologeticus written at carthage c it is worth noting that tertullian omits any mention of the surrounding countryside or its network of villas not unlike colonial hacienda society in the first of a string of rather poorly reported councils at carthage a few years later no fewer than seventy bishops attended tertullian later broke with the mainstream that was represented more and more by the bishop of rome but a more serious rift among christians was the donatist controversy which augustine of hippo spent much time and parchment arguing against in at the council at carthage the biblical canon for the western church was confirmed the political fallout from the deep disaffection of african christians was a crucial factor in the ease with which carthage and the other centres were captured in the th century by gaiseric king of the vandals who defeated the byzantine empirebyzantine general bonifacius and made the city his capital gaiseric was considered a heretic too an arianismarian and though arians commonly despised catholic christians a mere promise of toleration might have caused the citys population to accept him after a failed attempt to recapture the city in the th century the byzantines finally subdued the vandals in the th century using gaiserics grandsons deposal by a distant cousin gelimer as a pretext the byzantines dispatched an army to conquer the vandal kingdom on sunday october the byzantine general belisarius accompanied by his wife antonina made his formal entry into carthage sparing it a sack and a massacre during the emperor maurice emperormaurices reign carthage was made into an exarchate as was ravenna in italy these two exarchates were the western bulwarks of byzantium all that remained of its power in the west in the early th century it was the exarch of carthage heraclius of armeniansarmenian origin who overthrew emperor phocas the byzantine exarchate was not however able to withstand the arab conquerors of the th century the first arab assault on the exarchate of carthage was initiated from egypt without much success in a more protracted campaign lasted from in the exarchate of africa was finally overrun by the rising forces of islam and carthage itself was destroyed by the arab invaders to be replaced by tunis as the major regional center the destruction of the exarchate of africa marked a permanent end to roman or byzantine influence there as the rising tide of islam shattered the empire carthage in fiction hannibals children an alternate history fictionalternate history novel about the carthaginians gustave flaubert salammb novelsalammb a novel on the mercenary wars in north africa and around carthage isaac asimov the dead past a science fiction story in which carthage is a scientific interest of one of the characters concisely mentions all major facts about it john barnes authorjohn barnes wrote the timeline wars series of science fiction stories which has several timelines where carthage wins and enslaves other timelines pride of carthage a novel accounting hannibal barcas campaign against rome by david anthony durham the young carthaginian a novel about the carthaginians by g a henty references hannibals campaigns tony bath new york ny barnes amp noble books late carthaginian child sacrifice and sacrificial monuments in their mediterranean context shelby brown sheffield sheffield academic press la vie quotidienne carthage au temps dhannibal gilbert et colette charlespicard paris hachette la lgende de carthage azedine beschaouch paris gallimard carthage uncovering the mysteries and splendors of ancient tunisia david soren aicha ben abed ben kader heidi slim new york simon and schuster the phoenicians and the west politics colonies and trade maria eugenia aubet cambridge cambridge university press itineraria phoeniciaedward lipinski leuven uitgeverij peeters en departement oosterse studies carthage is also the codename of the mysterious fifth sector in the french animation series code lyoko quotaeneidquot virgil see also commonscarthage list of kings of carthage categoryancient peoples categoryancient roman enemies and allies categoryarchaeological sites in tunisia categorycarthage categorydestroyed cities categoryhistory of the maghreb categoryhistory of tunisia categoryphoenician colonies categoryroman sites in tunisia categoryworld heritage sites in tunisia ar bskartago cacartago cskartgo dakartago dekarthago etkartaago escartago eokartago frcarthage glcartago ko iskarag itcartagine he ladkartago lacarthago lbkarthago nlcarthago ndskarthago ja nokarthago plkartagina ptcartago ru slkartagina sr fikarthago svkarthago uk zhtext revision page page titlecoprimetitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamedmharveyusername idid contributor comment properties add pretty piccomment text xmlspacepreservein mathematics the integerintegers a and b are said to be coprime or relatively prime if they have no common divisorfactor other than and ampminus or equivalently if their greatest common divisor is for example number and number are coprime but and number are not because they are both divisible by the number number is coprime to every integer number is coprime only to and ampminus a fast way to determine whether two numbers are coprime is given by the euclidean algorithm eulers totient function or eulers phi function of a positive integer n is the number of integers between and n ampminus which are coprime to n properties imagecoprimelatticesvgthumbrightpxfigure the numbers and are coprime because the diagonal does not intersect any other lattice points there are a number of conditions which are equivalent to a and b being coprime there exist integers x and y such that ax by see bzouts identity the integer b has a multiplicative inverse modular arithmeticmodulo a there exists an integer y such that by ampequiv mod a in other words b is a unit ring theoryunit in the ring mathematicsring zaz of modular arithmeticintegers modulo a as a consequence if a and b are coprime and br ampequiv bs modular arithmeticmod a then r ampequiv s mod a because we may quotdivide by bquot when working modulo a furthermore if a and bltsubgtltsubgt are coprime and a and bltsubgtltsubgt are coprime then a and bltsubgtltsubgtbltsubgtltsubgt are also coprime because the product of units is a unit if a and b are coprime and a divides a product bc then a divides c this can be viewed as a generalisation of euclids lemma which states that if p is prime and p divides a product bc then either p divides b or p divides c the two integers a and b are coprime if and only if the point with coordinates a b in an cartesian coordinate system is quotvisiblequot from the origin in the sense that there is no point with integer coordinates between the origin and a b see figure the probability that two randomly chosen integers are coprime is amppiltsupgtltsupgt see pi which is about two natural numbers a and b are coprime if and only if the numbers ltsupgtaltsupgt ampminus and ltsupgtbltsupgt ampminus are coprime cross notation group if nampge is an integer the numbers coprime to n taken modular arithmeticmodulo n form a group mathematicsgroup with multiplication as operation it is written as znzltsupgtamptimesltsupgt or zltsubgtnltsubgtltsupgtltsupgt generalizations two ring idealideals a and b in the commutative ring algebraring r are called coprime if a b r this generalizes bzouts identity with this definition two principal ideals a and b in the ring of integers z are coprime if and only if a and b are coprime if the ideals a and b of r are coprime then ab aampcapb furthermore if c is a third ideal such that a contains bc then a contains c the chinese remainder theorem is an important statement about coprime ideals the concept of being relatively prime can also be extended any finite set of integers s altsubgtltsubgt altsubgtltsubgt altsubgtnltsubgt to mean that the greatest common divisor of the elements of the set is if every pair of integers in the set is relatively prime then the set is called pairwise relatively prime every pairwise relatively prime set is relatively prime however the converse is not true is relatively prime but not pairwise relative prime in fact each pair of integers in the set has a nontrivial common factor see also greatest common divisor categorynumber theory bg deteilerfremdheit esprimos entre s frnombres premiers entre eux ko idkoprima bilangan itinteri coprimi he nlrelatief priem plliczby wzgldnie pierwsze ru sltuje tevilo svrelativt prim th zhtext revision page page titlecontrol unittitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor ipip contributor comment types of control units comment text xmlspacepreservea control unit is the part of a central processing unitcpu or other device that directs its operation the outputs of the unit control the activity of the rest of the device a control unit can be thought of as a finite state machine at one time control units for cpus were adhoc logic and they were difficult to design now they are often implemented as a microprogram that is stored in a control store words of the microprogram are selected by a microsequencer and the bits from those words directly control the different parts of the device including the processor registerregisters arithmetic and logic units instruction registers computer busbuses and offchip inputoutput in modern computers each of these subsystems may have its own subsidiary controller with the control unit acting as a supervisor see also cpu design and computer architecture types of control units all types of control units generate electronic control signals that control other parts of a cpu control units are usually one of these typesltbrgt microcoded control units in a microcoded control unit a program reads signals and generates control signals the program itself is executed by a very simple computer a relatively simple digital circuit called a microsequencerltbrgt hardware control units in a hardware control unit a digital circuit generates the control signals directlyltbrgt categorycomputer hardware esunidad de control jatext revision page page titlecellotitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamedolphindusername idid contributor minor comment glue clarificationcomment text xmlspacepreservealternate meaning cello web browser imagecello front sidejpgthumba cello the cello pronounced quotchelloquot or cello short for violoncello is a stringed instrument and a member of the violin violin familyfamily a cello player is called a cellist the cello is popular in many capacities as a solo instrument in chamber music and also as a foundation of the modern orchestral sound description imagebrikciusjpgthumbcellist the name cello is an abbreviation of the italian languageitalian violoncello which means quotlittle violonequot the violone is an obsolete instrument a large viol similar to a modern double bass the cello is most closely associated with european classical music it is part of the standard orchestra and is the bass voice of the string quartet as well as being part of many other chamber musicchamber groups a large number of cello concertoconcertos and cello sonatasonatas have been written for it it is less common in popular music but is sometimes featured in pop musicpop and rock musicrock recordings among the most famous baroque works for the cello are johann sebastian bachj s bachs cello suites bachunaccompanied suites for cello commonly known as the bach cello suites an example of a classical music eraclassical era piece is joseph haydnhaydns cello concerto in c major standard romantic music eraromantic era repertoire includes antonn dvokdvoks cello concerto in b minor sir edward elgarelgars cello concerto in e minor and two sonatas by johannes brahmsbrahms modern compositions from the early th century include unaccompanied cello sonatas by paul hindemith opus numberopus and zoltn kodly opus recordings within the avant garde cutting edge genre have revitalized the instruments perceived versatility one example is night of the four moons by george crumb construction the cello is much larger than the violin or the viola but smaller than the double bass like the other members of the violin family the cello has four strings its strings are normally tuned to the pitch musicpitches from high to low a d g and c a d g and c in scientific pitch notation this is like the viola but one octave lower and is one octave plus one fifth lower than the violin see tuning and range it is played in an upright position between the legs of a seated musician resting on a metal spike called the endpin the player draws the bow musicbow horizontally across the strings the cello is a complex instrument consisting of many different parts although the majority of it is composed of wood some parts can be made of steel or other metals andor composite material today the strings are most often metal but can be made of gut or nylon body the main frame of the cello is typically made from wood although some modern cellos are constructed from carbon fibre a traditional cello normally has a spruce top with maple for the back sides and neck other woods such as poplar or willow are sometimes used for the back and sides less expensive cellos frequently have a top and back made of a plywoodlaminate the top and back are traditionally handcarved though less expensive cellos are often machineproduced the sides or ribs are made by heating the wood and bending it around forms the cello body has a wide top bout narrow middle formed by two cbouts and wide bottom bout with the bridge instrumentbridge and fholes just below the middle neck pegbox and scroll above the main body is the carved neck which leads to a pegbox and then a scroll the neck pegbox and scroll are normally carved out of a single piece of wood attached to the neck and extending over the body of the instrument is the fingerboard the nutinstrumentalnut is raised piece of wood fingerboard meets the pegbox which the strings rest on the pegbox houses four tuning pegs each which tunes its respective string by either tightening or loosening the string the scroll is a traditional part of the cello and all other members of the violin family ebony is usually used for the tuning pegs fingerboard and nut but other dark woods such as boxwood or rosewood can be used tailpiece and endpin the tailpiece and endpin are found at the opposite end of the body as the neck the tailpiece is traditionally made of ebony or another dark wood but can also be made of plastic or composite material it attaches the strings to the tail end of the cello the endpin made of metal or carbon fibre supports the cello while in playing position modern endpins are usually retractable and adjustable the end of the endpin touching the floor is usually a spiked tip that can be capped with rubber both serve to grip the floor and prevent the cello from moving or slipping bridge and fholes the bridge instrumentbridge elevates the strings above the cello and transfers their vibrations to the soundpost inside see below the bridge is not glued on tension from the strings holds it in place the fholes named for their shape are located on either side of the bridge and allow air to move in and out of the instrument to produce sound additionally fholes act as access points to the interior of the body when the need for repair or maintenance arises a quotdampitquot sometimes used to maintain proper humidity levels can also be inserted through the fholes internal features internally the cello has two important features a bass bar which is glued to the underside of the top of the instrument and a round wooden sound post also called a sound peg which is sandwiched between the top and bottom the bass bar found under the bass foot of the bridge serves to support the cellos top making it rigid the sound post found under the treble side of the bridge connects the back and front of the cello like the bridge the sound post is not glued to anything but is kept in place by the tensions of the bridge and strings together the bass bar and sound post are responsible for transfering the strings vibrations to the body of the instrument which in turn transfers them to the air mass inside the instrument producing sound glue cellos are constructed and repaired using animalgluehide glue which is strong but reversible allowing for disassembly when needed tops may be glued on with diluted glue since some repairs call for the removal of the top theoretically hide glue is weaker than the bodys wood so as the top or back shrinks sidetoside the glue holding it will let go avoiding a crack in the plate however in reality this does not always happen bow imagebow hand violoncellojpgthumbrightpxa cello bow traditionally bow music bows are made from pernambuco high quality or brazilwood lower quality both woods come from the same species of tree brazilwoodcaesalpina echinata but pernambuco is the heartwood of the tree and is much darker brasil wood is stainedpainted dark to compensate pernambuco is a heavy resinous wood with great elasticity and high sound velocity which makes it an ideal wood for instrument bows the hair is horsehair though synthetic hair is also available nowadays in addition the bow can now be made of fiberglass or carbon fibre or wood with a carbon fibre core the hair is coated with rosin periodically to make it grip the strings and cause them to vibrate bows need to be rehaired periodically the most common reason for rehairing is excessive hair loss through breakage hair that has stretched and will not tighten enough also calls for professional attention some professionals believe that eventually hair can also quotlose its gripquot others disagree saying that if the ribbon has enough hair and will tighten properly a proper cleaning will restore its playing quality the hair is kept under tension while playing by a screw which pulls the frogheel the part of the bow one holds back leaving the bow tightened for long periods of time can damage it by warping the stick development the cello developed from the bass violin first used by monteverdi which was a threestring consort instrument the invention of wirewound strings musicstrings fine wire around a thin gut core around in bologna allowed for a finer bass sound than was possible with purely gut strings on such a short body bolognese makers exploited this new technology to create the cello a somewhat smaller instrument suitable for solo repertoire due to both the timbre of the instrument and the fact that the smaller size made it easier to play virtuosovirtuosic passages this instrument had disadvantages as well however the cellos light sound was not as suitable for church and ensemble playing so it had to be doubled by double bassbasses or violones around italian players popularized the cello in northern europe although the bass violin continued to be used for another two decades in france and england the sizes names and tunings of the cello varied widely by geography and time the size was not standardized until around despite superficial similarities the cello is not in fact related to the violviola da gamba the cello is actually part of the viola da braccio family meaning viol of the arm which includes among others the violin there are actually paintings of people playing the cello on the shoulder like a giant violin it was only somewhat later that the cello began to be played on the lap baroque era cellos differed from the modern instrument in several ways the neck has a different form and angle which matches the baroque bassbar and stringing modern cellos have a retractable metal or sometimes carbon fibre spike at the bottom to support the instrument and transmit some of the sound through the floor while baroque cellos are held only by the calves of the player modern bows curve in and are held at the frog baroque bows curve out and are held closer to the bows point of balance modern strings normally have a metal core although some use a synthetic core baroque strings are made of gut with the g and c strings wirewound modern cellos often have finetuners connecting the strings to the tailpiece which make it much easier to tune the instrument overall the modern instrument has much higher string tension than the baroque cello resulting in a louder more direct tone with fewer overtones no educational works specifically devoted to the cello existed before the th century and those that do exist contain little value to the performer beyond simple accounts of instrumental technique one of the earliest cello manuals is michel correttes mthode thorique et pratique pour apprendre en peu de tems le violoncelle dans sa perfection paris sound the cello produces a deep rich and vibrant sound it has the lowest pitch in the traditional string quartet and is regarded by some as the instrument producing the sound most resembling the human voice playing technique body position the cello is played sitting with the knees apart and the instrument between them the scroll or top of the instrument is placed by the players left ear making the c string closest to the ear and the a string furthest from the ear the shoulders should be square but relaxed and the arms loose and able to move freely in early times when the cello was played by women it was positioned to the side of both legs it was considered improper for a lady to spread her legs in public left hand technique the left hand determines the pitch of the note when the cello is played the hand is positioned either so the thumb is against the back of the neck and the other four fingers are available to depress the strings on the fingerboard or with all five fingers above the fingerboard the side of the thumb being used as well as the tips of the other fingers known as quotthumb positionquot the fingers are usually held curved with each knuckle bent in fast playing the fingers contact the strings at the tip almost at the nail in slower or more expressive playing the flat of the fingerpad is used allowing a richer tone and fuller vibrato if the string is depressed further down the string closer to the bridge the resulting pitch will be higher because the string has been shortened if it is depressed further up the string closer to the scroll of the instrument the pitch will be lower additional left hand techniques vibrato vibrato consists of oscillating the finger of the left hand up and down while playing a note as a result the pitch of the note will waver slightly much as a singers voice on a sustained note a well developed vibrato technique is a key expressive device and an essential element of an accomplished cello player in some styles of music such as that of the romantic musicromantic period vibrato is used on almost every note however in other styles such as baroque pieces vibrato is not used or used only rarely a good vibrato comes from the arm not the fingers or wrist and requires a loose shoulder typically the lower the pitch of the note played the wider the vibrato used glissandi glissandi are notes played by sliding the finger up or down the fingerboard without releasing the string this causes the pitch to rise and fall smoothly without discrete steps harmonics harmonics are produced by touching but not depressing the string with the finger at certain places and then bowing or plucking the string for example the halfway point of the string will produce a harmonic that is one octave above the unfingered string there also exist fingered or artificial harmonics in which the player depressed the string with one finger and presses light to produce a harmonic further up the string with a second finger right hand technique in cello playing the bow is much like the breath of a wind instrument player arguably it is the major determinant in the expressiveness of the playing the right hand holds the bow and controls the duration and character of the notes the bow is drawn over along the strings in the area between the fingerboard and bridge in a direction perpendicular to the strings the bow is gripped with all five fingers of the right hand the shape of the hand should resemble that of its relaxed state with all fingers curved including the thumb and the wrist pronated the index finger and to a lesser degree the middle finger transmit most of the arm weight into the bow the other two fingers help to control the bow on a quotdownbowquot the bow is drawn towards the right moving the hand away from the bridge on an quotupbowquot the bow is drawn the other way bringing the hand closer to the bridge the bow is always held perpendicular to the string being played each string requires a slightly different angle of the bow the wrist is kept extremely flexible and cushions the movement of the bow to avoid abrupt changes especially during the switch from upbow to downbow and vice versa for very fast bow movements the wrist is used to accomplish the horizontal movement of bow for longer strokes the arm is used as well as the wrist tone production and volume of sound depend on a combination of several factors including bow speed the amount of weight applied to the string and the bow placement or spot on the string touched by the bow hair a good player will be capable of a very even tone and will counter the natural tendency to play with the most force with the part of the bow nearest to the frog or heel and the least force near the tip the closer to the bridge the string is bowed the louder and brighter the tone with the extreme sul ponticello producing a metalic shimmery sound if it is bowed closer to the fingerboard sul tasto the sound produced will be softer more mellow and less defined additonal right hand techniques double stops double stopdouble stops involve the playing of two notes at the same time two strings are fingered simultaneously and the bow is drawn at an angle so as to sound them both at once triple and quadruple stops may also be played but are difficult to sustain pizzicato in pizzicato playing the string is plucked with the right hand fingers or very rarely those of the left hand and the bow is simply held away from the strings by the rest of the hand or even set down a single string can be played pizzicato or double triple or quadruple stops can be played ocassionally a player must bow one string with the right hand and simultaneously pluck another with the left col legno col legno is technique in which the player taps the wooden stick of the bow on the strings which gives a light percussive sound that is quite often used in contemporary music spiccato in spiccato or quotbouncy bowquot playing the strings are not quotdrawnquot by the bow but struck by it while still retaining some horizontal motion to form a more percussive crisp sound it may be performed by using the wrist to quotdipquot the bow into the strings spiccato is usually associated with lively playing on a violin spiccato bowing comes off the string but on a cello the wood of the bow may rise briskly up without the hair leaving the string tuning and range the cello has four vibrating stringstrings referred to by their standard tuning which is in perfect fifth intervals the astring dstring gstring and cstring the astring is tuned to the pitch a which is three halfstephalfsteps lower than middle c the dstring a fifth lower at d the gstring a fifth below that at g and the cstring tuned to c two octaveoctaves lower than middle c cellos are usually tuned to a reference pitch of a at hertzhz though tuning to other frequencies such as hertzhz or hertzhz is also common some pieces notably the th of bachs cello suites bach suites for unaccompanied cello require an altered tuning of the strings known as scordatura while the lower range is constrained by the tuning of the lowest string typically c two octaves below middle c the upper range of the cello can vary according to the skill of the player a general guideline when writing for professional cellists sets the upper limit at c two octaves above middle c because of the enormous range of the instrument written music for the cello frequently alternates between the bass clef tenor clef and treble clef some romantic composers also wrote notes in treble clef but intended them to be played an octave lower than written sizes standard cellos are referred to as quotfullsizedquot or quotfourfourthsquot however cellos come in smaller sizes from quotseveneighthsquot and quotthreequarterquot down to quotonesixteenthquot sized cellos the smallersized cellos are identical to standard cellos but are simply scaleddown for the benefit of children and shorter adults many smaller female cellists prefer to play a quotseveneighthsquot cello as the hand stretches in the lower positions are less taxing although rare cellos in sizes larger than fourfourths do exist cellists with large enough hands may play a slightly larger fullsized cello or even a fivefourths size the cellos of the th and thcentury masters eg stradivarius and guarneri tend to be slightly smaller than what is today considered fullsized accessories there are many accessories to the cello some more essential than others cases are used to protect the cello and bow when traveling and for safe storage rosin is applied to the bow hairs to increase the effectiveness of the friction and allow proper sound production rockstops or endpin straps keep the cello from sliding if the endpin does not have a rubber piece on the end used on wood floors wolf tone eliminators are sometimes placed on cello strings between the tailpiece and the bridge in order to eliminate noises known as wolf tonewolf tones or quotwolfsquot mute musicmutes are used to change the sound of the cello by removing overtones metronomes provide a steady tempo by sounding out a certain number of beats per minute many models can also produce a tuning pitch of a hz humidifiers are used to control the humidity around the cello frequency countertuners are used to tuningtune the instrument current use orchestral cellos are part of the standard symphony orchestra usually the orchestra includes eight to twelve cellists the cello section in standard orchestral seating is located on stage left the audiences right in the front opposite to the first violin section however some orchestras prefer secondary orchestral seating where the cello section is placed in the middle front between the first violins and second violins the principal or quotfirst chairquot cellist is the leader of the cello section who determines bowings for the section in conjunction with other string sections and plays solos in standard orchestra seating heshe sits nearest to the conductor and the audience in secondary orchestra seating heshe sits nearest the conductor and stage left in comparison to the cellist next to himher the cellist sitting quotsecond chairquot the cellos are a critical part of orchestral music all symphonic works involve the cello section and many pieces require cello soli or solos much of the time cellos provide part of the harmony for the orchestra on many occasions the cello section will pick up the melody of the piece for a brief period of time before returning to the harmony there are also cello concertos which are orchestral pieces in which a featured solo cellist is accompanied by an entire orchestra solo there are multiple cello concertocello concertos where the cello is accompanied by an orchestra there are also many cello sonatasonatas for cello and piano there are also several unaccompanied pieces for cello most notably johann sebastian bachjs bachs cello suites bachunaccompanied suites for cello and benjamin brittens unaccompanied suites for cello quartetensembles the cello is a defined member of the traditional string quartet in addition cellos are also usually part of string string quintetsquintets string sextetssextet or string triotrios there have been several pieces written for a cello ensemble of up to twenty to thirty cellists this type of ensemble is often called a cello choir the the cellists of the berlin philharmonictwelve cellists of the berlin philharmonic orchestra or the twelve as they are called are a prime example of a cello choir they play and record pieces written especially for twelve cellos including adaptions of famous the beatlesbeatles songs pop music though the cello is less common in popular music than in classical musicquotclassicalquot music it is sometimes featured in pop musicpop and rock musicrock recordings the cello is rarely part of a groups standard lineup though like its cousin the violin it is becoming more common in mainstream pop an exception is apocalyptica a group of cellists best known for their versions of heavy metal songs another example is rasputina a group of three female cellists committed to an intricate cello style intermingled with gothic music these groups are examples of a style that has become known as cello rock additionally american musician tony levin makes great use of an electric cello designed by ned steinberger in his solo music also notable is the northern irelandnorthern irish group therapy who from to featured martin mccarrick on cello notable celloled songs by the band include quotdianequot and quotgod kicksquot makers luthiers mainluthier a violin maker or luthier is someone who builds or repairs stringed instruments ranging from guitars to violins some well known luthiers include nicolo amati nicol gagliano gofrillermatteo gofriller giovanni battista guadagnini giuseppe guarneri domenico montagnana stefano scarampella antonio stradivari david tecchler carlo giuseppe testore jean baptiste vuillaume cellists mainlist of cellists a person who plays the cello is called a cellist for a list of famous or notable cellists see list of celliststhe list of cellists see also categorycellists reference groveonlinevioloncellostephen bontajanuary see also commonscello double stop electric cello list of compositions for cello and orchestra list of solo cello pieces categorycomposers for cello external links httpwwwcelloorg the internet cello society an online community of cellists includes several forums httpcellistnl cellistnl an international register of professional cellists teachers and students httpwwwbreakofrealitycom break of reality a contemporary of apocalyptica from the eastman school of music httpwwwchrisbsmusiccomcellohistoryhtml cello history a brief history of the cello listening httpwwwbowedorg bowed radio podcast focusing on new music for bowed string instruments categorybowed instruments categorycontinuous pitch instruments categorymusical instruments categorystring instruments link fade link fahe cavioloncel csvioloncello dacello devioloncello esviolonchelo eoviolonelo frvioloncelle ko itvioloncello he hucsell nlvioloncello ja nocello plwiolonczela ptvioloncelo slviolonelo fisello svcello vih cm uk zhtext revision page page titlecontrol storetitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor ipip contributor commentjacomment text xmlspacepreservea control store is the part of a central processing unitcpus control unit that stores the cpus microprogram it is usually accessed by a microsequencer a control store is usually implemented as a diodearray of readonly memory on modern vlsi cpus historically ibm mainframes loaded their microprograms from floppy disks into a control store consisting of ultrahigh speed randomaccess memory this permitted ibm to easily repair microprogramming defects in the field the control store usually has on its outputs a register it must be obvious that the outputs that go back into the sequencer to determine the next address have to go through some sort of register to prevent a race condition being created however it turns out that in most designs it pays for all of the other bits to also go through a register this is because the machine will work faster if the execution of the next microinstruction is delayed by one cycle this register is known as a pipeline register the point is that very often the execution of the next microinstruction is dependent on result of the current microinstruction that will not be stable till the end of the current microcycle it can be seen that either way all of the outputs of the control store go into one big register in the olden days it used to be possible to buy eproms with these register bits on the same chip categorycomputer hardware the clock signal determining the cycle time of the system primarily clocks this register jatext revision page page titlecolumbatitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamefeezousername idid contributor minor commentreverted edit by specialcontributions usertalk talk to last version by irish ladcomment text xmlspacepreservesee columba disambiguation and st columb for other uses saint columba or saint colm cille sometimes known as st columba of iona december june the latinized version of the irish languageirish name colmcille old irish columb cille meaning quotdove of the churchquot was the outstanding figure among the irelandirish missionary monks who reintroduced christianity to scotland and the north of england during the dark ages he was born to fedlimid and eithne of the u nill clan in gartan near lough gartan donegal on his fathers side he was greatgreatgrandson of niall of the nine hostages an irish king of the th century he became a monk and was ordained priest tradition asserts that sometime around he became involved in a dispute with saint finnian of movillefinnian over a psalter columba copied the manuscript at the scriptorium under saint finnian intending to keep the copy saint finnian disputed his right to keep the copy the dispute eventually led to the pitched battle of cl dreimhne in during which many men were killed columbas copy of the psalter has been traditionally associated with the cathach of st columba as penance for these deaths columba suggested that he work as a missionary in scotland to help convert as many people as had been killed in the battle he exiled himself from ireland and never again saw his native island in he travelled to scotland where according to his legend he first landed at the southern tip of the kintyre peninsula near southend kintyresouthend however being still in sight of his native land he moved further north up the west coast of scotland in he was granted land to found a monastery on the island of iona off the west coast of scotland which became the centre of his evangelising mission to scotland aside from the services he provided guiding the only outpost of literacy in the region his reputation as a holy man led to his role as a diplomat among the tribes there are also many stories of miracles which he performed during his work to convert the picts the main source of information about columbas life is the vita columbae by adomnampaacuten the ninth abbot of iona who died in both the vita columbae and bede record columbas visit to bridei i of the pictsbridei king of fortriu whereas adomnampaacuten just tells us that columba visited bridei bede relates a later perhaps pictish tradition whereby the saint actually converts the pictish king another early source is a poem in praise of columba most probably also composed in the course of the th century it consists of stanzas of four verses of seven syllables each the earliest recorded example of the name arthur in a british document occurs as arturius in adomnans vita there it occurs as the name of a prince among the scots the son of aidan king from ad far from the legendary king arthurs familiar haunts in the southwest the vita of columba is also the source of the first known reference to the loch ness monster according to adomnan columba came across a group of picts who were burying a man killed by the monster and saved a swimmer with the sign of the cross and the imprecation quotyou will go no furtherquot at which the beast fled terrified to the amazement of the assembled picts who glorified columbas god through the reputation of its venerable founder and its position as a major european center of learning columbas iona became a place of pilgrimage a network of celtic high crosses marking processional routes developed around his shrine at iona columbas relics were finally removed in and divided between alba and ireland relics of columba were carried before scottish armies in the reliquary made at iona in the midth century called the brechbennoch o columba spes scotorum quoto columba hope of the scotsquot begins a th century prayer in the antiphoner of inchcolm the quotiona of the eastquot st columbas feast day is june and with saint patrick march and st brigid february is one of the three patron saints of ireland see also columbanus or saint columban irish missionary and founder of many european monastaries a contemporary of columbas columba initiative history of irelandearly christian ireland early christian ireland list of people on stamps of ireland saintecolombe has many dedications in france further reading adomnan of iona life of st columba tr amp ed richard sharpe penguin isbn see below under external links for an etext dauvid broun amp thomas owen clancy eds spes scotorum hope of scots saint columba iona and scotland t amp t clark isbn external links httpwwwuccieceltpublishedtindexhtml celt on the life of saint columba betha choluim chille tr w stokes httpwwwuccieceltpublishedtindexhtml celt the life of columba written by adamnan tr w reeves httpwwwnewadventorgcathenahtm catholic encyclopedia st columba httpwwwbbccoukhistoryscottishhistoryearlychurchfeaturesearlychurchionashtml bbc st columba httpjahtruthnetlecturehtm columba of kells and iona httpwwwlochnessscotlandcomprojectfoldercentreprojectcopyarchiveroompapershtmlcolumbahtm vita the river nes water monster httpwwwcyberscotiacominchcolmindexhtml quotinchcolm iona of the eastquot start box succession box before titleabbot of iona years afterbaithne of ionabaithne end box category births category deaths categorypostroman scotland categoryirish monks categorymedieval gaels categorynatives of county donegal categoryirish saints decolumban von iona eosankta kolumba frsaint colomba itsan columba di iona he nlcolumba heilige ja nocolumba av iona plkolumba z iony rutext revision page page titleconditional prooftitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamefredrikusername idid contributor commentremove poor example fmtcomment text xmlspacepreservea conditional proof is a mathematical proofproof that takes the form of asserting a conditional and proving that the premise or antecedent of the conditional necessarily leads to the conclusion proving this requires assuming the premise and deriving from that assumption the consequent of the conditional by proving the connection between the antecedent and the consequent the assumption of the antecedent is justified post hoc see also deduction theorem logical implication mathstub category logic category proofstext revision page page titleconjunction introductiontitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamejiyusername idid contributor minor commentrecatcomment text xmlspacepreserveconjunction introduction is the inference that if p is true and q is true then the logical conjunctionconjunction p and q is true for example if its true that its raining and its true that im inside then its true that its raining and im inside formally ltmathgtpltmathgt ltmathgtfracqqquadquadltmathgt ampthereltmathgt p wedge q ltmathgt mathlogicstub categoryrules of inferencetext revision page page titleconjunction eliminationtitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernameoleg alexandrovusername idid contributor minor commentcategorymathematical logiccomment text xmlspacepreservein logic conjunction elimination is the inference that if the conjunction a and b is true then a is true and b is true for instance if its true that its raining and im inside then one may assert either term of the conjunction alone its raining or im inside formally ltugt a ampand b ltugt ampthere a or ltugt a ampand b ltugt ampthere b categorymathematical logictext revision page page titlecommonwealth englishtitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernameneo piperusername idid contributor minor comment canadian spelling comment text xmlspacepreserveenglish dialects quotcommonwealth englishquot is intended as a collective term for the perceived standard english language used in the commonwealth of nationsltsupgtnotesltsupgt applying in theory to australian english british english caribbean english canadian english hibernoenglish irish englishltsupgtnotesltsupgt hong kong englishltsupgtnotesltsupgt indian english includes pakistani english formal malaysian english new zealand english formal singapore english but not colloquial singlish and south african english yet canadian english in particular does not fit well with the others the term is little used and when used is most often synonymous with british english in its narrower sense or with international english in a specialised sense which excludes american english rationale for the term quotcommonwealth englishquot the term perhaps comes from a desire to recognise that quotstandard englishquot of britain distinguished from american english is just as much owned by those who use it in australia or new zealand or india or south africa as by those who use it in the land of its origin and from a feeling that this use in multiple countries should appear in its name that this kind of english is no longer only british conflict from differences in language aside from spelling there are other differences in the languages words used in the united states are sometimes used in england which can be insultive and derogatory and vice versa canadian englishs unique position words and idioms canada the commonwealth country with the largest nativeborn nativeenglishspeaking population outside of britain is unique in that its standard vocabulary idiom and accent tend to coincide with that of neighbouring speakers in the united states far more than with those of britain or the rest of the commonwealth most of the distinctive terms britons identify as american english are used by canadians as well such as diaper gasoline elevator and apartment see also north american english canadian spelling there is no universally accepted standard of canadian spelling and standards differ from one englishspeaking area of canada to another historical ties with britain tend to pull canadian spelling in that direction physical proximity with the united states has tended to pull it towards the american standard as a result canadian spelling has tended to waver between the two taking some of each most authorities such as the canadian governments style manual the canadian style the canadian press style guide the gage canadian dictionary and the canadian oxford dictionary propose certain standards the use of the quotourquot ending in words such as neighbour and colour the use of the quotrequot ending in words such as centre and theatre the use of the quotcequot ending for nouns and the quotsequot ending for the equivalent verbs such as a licence noun to license verb and practice noun to practise verb the use of double letters in words such as travelled leveller etc certain american spellings remain common the spelling program is more usual than programme airplane is universally favoured over aeroplane tire is used rather than tyre etc australian english australian english also borrows from both british and american spellings however british english dominates most of the word spelling internal spelling differences within british english and its commonwealth variants there is disagreement as to proper spelling of words such as organise organize both quotisequot and quotizequot are generally accepted as correct the quotisequot forms are very rarely used in canada but they are the choice of the majority in britain even though most british dictionaries prefer the quotizequot forms see british english for more details according to pam peters iseize based on british national corpus data in britain the ise spellings outnumber those with ize in the ratio of about in australian english the difference is still greater often by frequencies in the ace corpus and the tendency has been reinforced by official endorsement of ise by the australian government style manual since the english academy of south africa website uses quotizequot forms on some pages and quotisequot forms on other pages recognising both the australian journal of linguistics the official journal of the australian linguistics society insists on the quotizequot forms against the australian dictionaries and the majority in australia independent standards within quotcommonwealth englishquot the more extensive forms of commonwealth english and even some of those less used have their own separate recognised dictionaries the dictionary of canadian english the senior dictionary was first published by the canadian textbook publisher gage learning in and updated versions have appeared regularly the most recent being the gage canadian dictionary in for south africa there was charles pettmans africanderisms a glossary of south african colloquial words and phrases published in philip branfords a dictionary of south african english was published in and the most recent edition in australian english has had the macquarie dictionary since in oxford university press published the concise ulster dictionary in they went farther afield by releasing a dictionary of south african english on historical principles the canadian oxford dictionary and the dictionary of new zealand english in they published the australian oxford dictionary all these use previous oxford english dictionaries as a base but modify or replace text according to research on other varieties of english caribbean english has fredericampnbspg cassidy and robertampnbspb leampnbsppages dictionary of jamaican english and johnampnbspa holm and alisonampnbspw shllings dictionary of bahamian english limited use quotcommonwealth englishquot is not a clear and distinctive dialect although it becomes far closer to being one if canadian english is not considered microsoft encarta appears in four english versions an american english version a british english version a canadian english version and an australian english version perhaps indicating that microsoft did not feel that one commonwealth english version would serve to balance the american english version though there are likely to be few differences between the british english version and the australian english version a fifth version could be introduced as well british english with concise oxford dictionary spelling iana value engboed also increasingly spell checkers are supporting more finely grained systems of spelling not attempting to make british english renamed as commonwealth english do for all notes there are a number of other commonwealth nations which are not listed here but also have english as either the primary or an official language examples include malta singapore and mozambique which is a commonwealth member but uses portuguese languageportuguese as its main language of communication although hibernoenglish irish english is listed as commonwealth english the republic of ireland is not a member of the commonwealth of nations although northern ireland is a member being part of the united kingdom although hong kong english is listed as commonwealth english since hong kong has not been a member of the commonwealth of nations but a special administrative region of peoples republic of chinachina references peters pam the cambridge guide to english usage cambridge cambridge university press isbn x external links httpwwwenglishacademycoza english academy of south africa website httpwwwtandfcoukjournalsauthorscajlauthasp taylor amp francies instructions for authors for the australian journal of linguistics quotthe ize suffix is used for example civilize civilization rather than civilise civilisationquot categorycommonwealth of nations categoryenglish dialects categoryenglish language categoryforms of englishtext revision page page titlecharles mccarrytitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamebluebotusername idid contributor minor commentbringing quotexternal linksquot and quotsee alsoquot sections in line with the wikipediamanual of stylemanual of stylecomment text xmlspacepreservecharles mccarry is an american writer whose works often concern secret history bankers the cia postwar germany and richard nixon he worked for many years for the cia his novels are currently being reprinted by overlook press starting with tears of autumn republished in mccarry was an editoratlarge for national geographic and has contributed pieces to the new york times the wall street journal the washington post and other national publications mccarrys novel the better angels was made into the film wrong is right starring sean connery novels the miernek dossier the tears of autumn the secret lovers the better angels last supper the bride of the wilderness second sight shelleys heart lucky bastard old boys nonfiction from the field editor isles of the caribbean coauthor the great southwest double eagle citizen nader inner circles how america changed the world with alexander haig external links httpwwwthemorningnewsorgarchivespersonalitiesbirnbaumvcharlesmccarryphp a interview with mccarry httpwwwimdbcomnamenm imdb page for charles mccarrytext revision page page titlecimbrititle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor ipip contributor comment invading gaul comment text xmlspacepreservemergecimbrian war imagecimbrians and teutonspngthumbpxthe migrations of the teutons and the cimbri the cimbri were a protogermanic tribe who according to pliny the elder lived on jutland chersonesus cimbrica and the jutish region of himmerland where the contemporary gundestrup cauldron was found is thought to preserve their name cf grimms law kgth the name has been analysed as the name kimme meaning quotrimquot ie the people of the coasthttprunebergorgnfbehtml but there is also the hypothesis that the name is related to that of the cimmerians charles kingsley links the name to the word quotchampionquot which gives us the modern germanic word quotkampfquot meaning quotfightquot however this word is normally derived from latin campus quotfield often for military activitiesquot moving southeast some time before bc many of the cimbri as well as the teutonsteutones left southern scandinavia and migrated southeast after several battles with the boii and other celtic tribes they appeared ca bc in noricum where they invaded the lands of one of romes allies the taurisci at this time if not before they had picked up substantial celtic elements as allies and the majority of the migrating cimbri may have been celtic such as the ambrones on the request of the roman consul gnaeus papirius carbo sent to defend the taurisci they retreated only to find themselves deceived and attacked at battle of noreianoreia in a bloody battle they defeated the romans and killed the consul invading gaul now the road to italy was open but they turned west towards gaul they came into frequent conflict with the roman republicromans who usually came out the losers in bc they defeated a roman army under the consul marcus junius silanus who was the commander of gallia narbonensis the same year they defeated another roman army under the consul gaius cassius longinus consul bcgaius cassius longinus who was killed at burdigala modern day bordeaux in bc the romans once again lost against the tigurines who were allies of the cimbri attacking the roman republic it was not until bc that they planned an attack on the roman empire itself at the rhne river the cimbri clashed with the roman armies the roman commanders the proconsul quintus servilius caepio and the consul gnaeus mallius maximus hindered roman coordination and so the cimbri succeeded in first defeating the legate marcus aurelius scaurus and later cause a devastating defeat on caepio and maximus at the battle of arausio the romans lost as many as men not including the lost auxiliary cavalry and the noncombatants which would have made a total loss of about men rome was in panic and the terror cimbricus became a proverb everyone expected soon to see the new gauls outside of the gates of rome in their desperation new measures were undertaken against the constitution marius who had defeated jugurtha was elected consul and supreme commander for four years in a row bcampndash bc defeat imagethe defeat of the cimbrijpgrightthumbpxthe defeat of the cimbri by alexandre gabriel dcamps however in bc the cimbri and their protogermanic allies the teutons had turned to spain where they pillaged far and wide during this time c marius had the time to prepare and in bc he was ready to meet the teutons and the ambrones at the rhne river these two tribes intended to pass into italy through the western passes while the cimbri and the tigurines were to take the northern route across the rhine and later across the tyrolian alps at the estuary of the isre river the teutons and the ambrones met marius whose welldefended camp they did not manage to overrun instead they pursued their route and marius followed them at battle of aquae sextiaeaquae sextiae the romans won two battles and took the teuton king teutobod prisoner the cimbri however had penetrated through the alps into northern italy however the consul quintus lutatius catulus had not dared to fortify the passes but instead he had retreated behind the po river and so the land was open to the invaders however the cimbri did not hurry and the victors of aquae sextiae had the time to arrive with reinforcements at the battle of vercellae at the confluence of the sesia river with the po river in bc the long voyage of the cimbri also came to an end it was a devastating defeat and both the chieftains lugius and boiorix died the women killed both themselves and their children in order to avoid slavery the cimbri were annihilated with the exception of a small remaining population of cimbri which still remained in northern jutland in the st century ad culture the cimbri are depicted as ferocious warriors who did not fear death the host was followed by women and children on carts aged women dressed in white see vlva sacrificed the prisoners of war and sprinkled their blood see blt the nature of which allowed them to see what was to come see also cimmerians sugambri categoryancient germanic peoples categoryancient roman enemies and allies categoryethnic groups in europe categorypreroman iron age dakimbrer dekimbern frcimbres ltkimbrai nlcimbren plcymbrowie ru fikimbrittext revision page page titlecimbriwaidtitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamejhkusername idid contributor commentcomment text xmlspacepreserveredirect widewutotext revision page page titlecleveland brownstitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamephbasketballusername idid contributor comment not to be forgotten comment text xmlspacepreserveredirectbrowns nfl team name cleveland browns founded city cleveland ohio colors brown orange and white coach romeo crennel owner randy lerner general manager phil savage mascot cb chomps td and trapper stations wmms and wtam am announcers doug dieken jim donovan mike snyder casey coleman and andre knot histyr histmisc cleveland browns suspended operations affiliateold allamerica football conference western division nflstartyr divisionhist american conference eastern conference century division american football conference present afc central afc north present noleaguechamps noconfchamps nodivchamps leaguechamps allamerica football conferenceaafc championships ltbrgt list of nfl championsnfl championships ltbrgt confchamps nfl american nfl eastern divchamps nfl century afc central stadiumyears cleveland stadiumcleveland municipal stadium cleveland browns stadium present the cleveland browns are a professional american football team based in cleveland ohio they currently belong to the afc northnorthern division of the american football conference afc in the national football league nfl the browns began play in as a charter member of the allamerica football conference and joined the nfl in after the aafc merged into the older league the team has won aafc titles and list of nfl championsnfl championships in some accounts there may be confusion regarding the teams history due to unusual and unprecedented actions taken by the city of cleveland and the nfl in on november thenbrowns owner art modell announced his intention to move the team to baltimore citing the inadequacy of cleveland stadium and the lack of a sufficient replacement along with his heavy debt the decision triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of cleveland and the nfl reached a settlement on february it stipulated that the browns name colors and history of the franchise were to remain in cleveland a reactivated cleveland browns team would then begin play in in the afc central division while the relocated club would technically and legally be a new expansion team the baltimore ravensrefbaltsun for that reason past records and pro football hall of fame players are attributed to the browns and not to the ravens however some incorrectly consider the ravens and the pre browns organization as one continuous entity since art modell retained the player and personnel contracts for his franchise using terms like quotthe modell organizationquot or quotart modells franchisequot to denote it refmodellorg see the franchise history section below for full details of the move uniform colors brown officially quotseal brownquot and orange helmet design orange helmet with brown and white center stripe no logo for one preseason game in the initials quotcbquot in brown appeared on each side franchise history early days in the aafc imageclevelandbrownspngleftframethe browns are the only team in the nfl that does not have a logo on their helmet the cleveland browns were founded in under owner arthur mcbridearthur mickey mcbride the team was to be named the cleveland panthers but a semipro team was using that name and threatened to sue if the aafc club used it as well mcbride then named the team after its first head coach paul brown brown was uncomfortable with the idea of having the team named after him stating publicly that the team was named after boxing champion joe louis who was known as the quotbrown bomberquot in either event the browns were extremely successful in the early part of their existence dominating the new allamerica football conference winning all four of its championships including with a landmark season in which they went unbeaten and untied years before the nfls first perfect team the miami dolphins clevelands undefeated streak including ties reached games including straight wins nfl dominance after the season the allamerica football conferenceaafc merged with the rival national football league with the browns joining the san francisco ers and baltimore colts as members of the older circuit despite the change in leagues and what many football fans saw as a graduation to quotthe big leaguequot the browns continued their dominant position among pro football teams appearing in the next six nfl championship games and capturing three championships during the s the browns won the championship in their first season in the nfl behind the quarterbacking of otto graham the rushing of marion motley the receiving of mac speedie a defensive line anchored by bill willis and a secondary featuring tommy james cleveland tore up the nfl in the regular season going with both losses being to the new york giants the browns first regular season game was on the road against the defending nfl champion philadelphia eagles as the schedule makers intended to give the browns an immediate comeuppance cleveland won the game in dominant fashion the browns defeated the giants in a tiebreaking playoff game and then came from behind in the fourth quarter beat the los angeles rams in the league championship in cleveland cleveland again tore through the nfl in the season going with four shutouts along the way the nfl championship was a rematch with the rams in los angeles this time and went backandforth until the fourth quarter when norm van brocklin threw a yard touchdown to tom fears to put los angeles in the lead for good the loss was the first in a championship game in browns history the regular season was not as successful with only an finish and graham throwing interceptions secondyear player ray renfro became a star with yards receiving and yards rushing but it was still good enough to win the division and thus put the browns in the nfl championship game against the detroit lions a muffed punt several defensive stands and a yard touchdown run by doak walker all combined to help the lions win frustrating the browns for the second consecutive year imagebrowns logogifthumbrightthe quotbrownie elfquot mascot the team started the season by winning straight games they would not win any more a loss to the philadelphia eagles in the final week led into a rematch with the lions in the nfl championship the game was much closer than the year before with the game tied at going into the final quarter lou groza kicked two field goals to put cleveland up but detroits bobby layne threw a yard touchdown pass to jim doran with under two minutes left to win and break cleveland hearts for a third straight year in the browns finished and met up with detroit in the finals for the third year in a row this time however the browns went on a relentless attack on both sides of the ball intercepting bobby layne six times and forcing three fumbles while otto graham threw three touchdowns and ran for three more en route to a thrashing the campaign was also a successful one for the browns chuck noll who ironically would later gain fame as head coach of the rival pittsburgh steelers had a productive season at linebacker with five interceptions graham passed for touchdowns and ran for six more in his final season before retiring due to injuries the browns who finished once again made the championship this time against the los angeles rams they were no less dominant than they were the previous season again forcing six interceptions out of quarterback norm van brocklin one of which was returned for a touchdown by don paul graham also passed for two touchdowns and ran for two more as the browns won without graham behind center the browns floundered in three quarterbacks george ratterman babe parilli and tommy oconnell were used through the season none of whom threw more touchdowns than interceptions the record meant the browns were shut out of the championship game for the first time in team history the jim brown years the browns responded in when they drafted fullback jim brown who easily became the nfls leading rusher and nfl rookie of the year with yards once again at the top of the division at they advanced back to the championship game against their nemeses from detroit but the lions dominated from start to finish causing six turnovers and allowing the browns two quarterbacks tommy oconnell and milt plum only yards passing in a rout in jim brown ran for yards almost twice as much as any other running back in his nine seasons in the league he crossed the yard barrier seven times the only snag in their getting back to another championship was the new york giants they lost to new york on the last week of the season after a spirited fourthquarter comeback then due to their equal records faced the giants again in a tiebreaker game with the winner going to the finals this one was never in doubt jim brown was limited to yards and the team committed four turnovers as they were shut out in the browns started but finished out of championship contention despite brown once again leading the league in rushing with yards in plum threw for touchdowns and browns yards was still best in the nfl but the team still finished second at art modell whose controversial decisions in later years led to the teams original demise purchased the team in the season otherwise was typical a fifth consecutive leagueleading season from jim brown and a halfdecent performance in the standings but again at they were two games out of a berth in the championship milt plum landed with the lions in so frank ryan football playerfrank ryan and jim ninowski shared quarterbacking duties jim brown fell to fourth in the nfl rushing list but the teams record once again placed them third in the eastern division sadly the teams firstround draft pick that year heisman trophy winner ernie davis was diagnosed with leukemia during the preseason the only time he took the field at cleveland stadium would be when he was introduced during the august doubleheader exhibition game his loss was especially costly since the team had been forced to trade future hall of famer bobby mitchell in order to acquire him paul brown the only coach the browns had ever known and the teams namesake was fired on january and replaced with blanton collier browns dismissal was controversial not only because he had been the cornerstone of the franchise since its inception but also due to the fact that modell fired him in the midst of a cleveland newspaper strike allowing for limited local media attention a series of tragedies during the offseason also proved to be devastating draft choice tom bloom was killed in a car accident in january davis lost his battle with leukemia on may and defensive back don fleming was electrocuted on june while working in florida despite these blows the team improved in led by jim browns nfl record yards rushing a mark that would stand for the next decade until oj simpson broke it in the teams passing attack also flourished with touchdown passes from frank ryan including a teamrecord to secondyear wideout gary collins the season began with six straight victories including an impressive decision on october at yankee stadium over the defending eastern conference champion new york giants two weeks later the giants returned the favor with an embarrassing victory at cleveland stadium after two losses in their next three games eroded the teams momentum they bounced back with a win over dallas and a victory against the cardinals the first game took place just two days after the john f kennedy assassination and was noteworthy for both the somber atmosphere and avoidance of any reference to the city of dallas by the cleveland stadium public address announcer despite those wins a loss at detroit on december put an end to the teams postseason hopes with the season record a game behind the giants the team also dropped a decision to the green bay packers in the playoff bowl the browns reached the top again in as rookie paul warfield caught passes for yards and nine touchdowns ryan threw for yards and scores and brown once agin led the league in rushing with yards the team was in its first four games the tie coming in a thrilling deadlock against the st louis cardinals on september the first loss came at the hands of the pittsburgh steelers on october mainly due to the efforts of future hall of famer john henry johnson who rushed for more than yards after six wins in their next seven games the browns missed the chance to clinch the eastern conference by dropping a decision at st louis on december however before a national television audience six days later the browns convincingly captured their conference title with a win over the new york giants the title earned them a spot in the nfl championship game after a sevenyear absence oddsmakers made their opponents the baltimore colts sevenpoint favorites but the teams left the field after one half of play locked in a scoreless duel lou grozas field goal gave the browns a lead with the duo of quarterback frank ryan and wide receiver gary collins completing the upset by connecting on three touchdown passes winning the title marks the last championship by any major cleveland sports team as of the team finished after brown rushed for yards caught passes and scored touchdowns once again leading the league in rushing yardage those numbers resulted in brown winning the most valuable player award from the league the teams passing attack was hindered in the preseason with a major injury to wide receiver paul warfield who missed much of the campaign as a result however after shaking off an earlyseason loss to st louis the browns won nine of their next games clinching the eastern conference with a win over the washington redskins on december cleveland once again made the nfl championship game this time against the vince lombardiled green bay packers in the days leading up to the contest the browns seemed in prime position to win another title as packer quarterback bart starr and running back jim taylors health made them questionable for the game when an earlymorning snowstorm on the day of the game turned the field into a muddy mess the packers reliance on their powerful running game proved to be a major factor in the game early on starr and green bay wideout carroll dale connected for the first score aided by browns defender walter beach slipping on the muddy field despite the slow start cleveland only trailed at halftime but only had the ball for plays after intermission as the packers pulled away with a paul hornung touchdown to win playoff disappointments as training camp was beginning in july jim brown shocked the browns their fans and the nfl by announcing his retirement brown who had been filming the movie the dirty dozen in london was irritated by browns owner art modells threats of fines for not reporting for training camp and simply retired leroy kelly became the browns new rushing threat for the season ably filling browns shoes with the first of his three consecutive yard seasons frank ryans touchdowns also led the league entering the final month of the regular season the browns had remained in contention but a costly loss in a thanksgiving day game at dallas put a major dent in their postseason hopes blanton colliers squad placed one game behind the cowboys with a mark and missed the league championship game for the first time in three years the browns began the season with two losses defeats that were quickly forgotten with nine wins in the next contests to help the team finish at for the second consecutive year unlike the previous season the nfls new realignment made that record good enough for first place in the shortlived century division and a spot in the new eastern conference championship against the cowboys unfortunately the game between the two squads was over quickly as don meredith passed for two touchdowns dave baynham ran for three and bob hayes generally made the browns life miserable on special teams as the cowboys annihilated the browns following another slow start in ryan was out at quarterback in favor of bill nelsen who had been acquired from the pittsburgh steelers in the offseason in their october game against the undefeated baltimore colts the heavy underdog browns stunned their opponents with a win sparking an eightgame winning streak nelsens main target was fifthyear receiver paul warfield who had the best season of his career with yards and touchdowns the team finished the regular season with a mark good enough for another firstplace finish and a rematch with dallas in the eastern conference final after four consecutive losses to their texas opponents the browns ended their frustration by not allowing the cowboys an offensive touchdown until the final minute leroy kellys two long runs for scores paced the offense with the turning point in a victory coming on dale lindseys return of a don meredith interception for a touchdown early in the second half cleveland advanced to the nfl championship against the baltimore colts don cockroft had an early field goal blocked and the browns would not have another chance to score again tom matte ran for three touchdowns as the colts shut out the browns to advance to super bowl iii the season produced similar results nelsen threw yards and touchdowns both career highs and warfield and gary collins both had at least ten touchdown catches the team finished again best in the century division and once again played the cowboys in the conference final nelsen threw for yards and walt sumner returned an interception yards for a touchdown as the browns took their second straight eastern championship by the score of but the nfl championship game was another disappointment for the browns joe kapp of the minnesota vikings scored on the teams first possession and another rout began the vikings went up by halftime and ended up winning the aflnfl merger would see the browns pittsburgh steelers and baltimore colts move to the new american football conference aligned with the teams of the american football league while the realignment would greatly benefit the steelers the placement of the browns into the afcs central division would not be as good the trade of paul warfield to the miami dolphins for a draft choice used on purdue all american mike phipps did not help the browns either after defeating the new york jets in the firstever broadcast of monday night football the browns stumbled through the season finishing coach blanton collier was replaced with nick skorich before the season the browns improved to and a firstplace finish in the afc central this placed them in the divisional playoff against the baltimore colts but much like their matchup three years earlier the game went ugly early backup colts running back don nottingham scored two firsthalf touchdowns and it was all baltimore would need the browns season ended in another disappointment mike phipps was promoted to starting quarterback over nelsen before the season after a sluggish start the browns went on an tear that surge was highlighted by late comeback victories against the san diego chargers and pittsburgh steelers and a playoffclinching victory at cincinnati a mark earned them the afc wild card berth and put them in a divisional playoff against the undefeated miami dolphins the browns took a lead in the fourthquarter on a fair hooker touchdown catch but jim kiick preserved the dolphins perfect season with a late touchdown run for the decision in phipps threw interceptions to just nine touchdowns and no rusher had more than yards after winning four of their first six games the browns slumped before bouncing back with a trio of victories the last one a dramatic lastminute victory over the pittsburgh steelers on november the following week a fourth quarter rally salvaged a tie against the kansas city chiefs but a playoff berth evaporated the following week with a loss against the cincinnati bengals cleveland ended the year at good for third place in the division defensive lineman jerry sherk made the first of four consecutive trips to the nfl pro bowl the kardiac kids the browns era of success came to a crashing halt as the team dropped to in neither phipps nor rookie qb brian sipe were effective throwing combined interceptions to only touchdowns the browns allowed points most in the league it was the first losing season in franchise history and head coach nick skorich saw his tenure with the team end as a result of the collapse assistant coach and former green bay packer offensive lineman forrest gregg took over in but the bad fortunes of the team remained with an start that finally came to an end on november in a comeback victory over the cincinnati bengals three weeks later thirdyear running back greg pruitt paced the team with yards rushing in a rout over the kansas city chiefs helping the team finish the season cleveland showed marked improvement with a mark in as brian sipe firmly took control at quarterback sipe had been inserted into the lineup after a mike phipps injury in the seasonopening win against the new york jets on september after a start brought visions of another disastrous year the browns jolted the twotime defending super bowl champion pittsburgh steelers with an victory on october thirdstring quarterback dave mays helped lead the team to that victory while defensive end joe jones piledriving sack of quarterback terry bradshaw fueled the heated rivalry between the two teams that win was the first of eight in the next nine weeks helping put the browns in contention for the afc playoffs a loss to the kansas city chiefs in the regular season finale cost them a share of the division title but running back greg pruitt continued his outstanding play by rushing for exactly yards his secondstraight fourdigit season the browns continued to roll in the first half of the nfl season but an injury to brian sipe by pittsburgh steelerspittsburghs jack lambert american football playerjack lambert on november proved to be disastrous cleveland won only one of their last five games to finish at a collapse that led to forrest greggs dismissal before the final game of the season dick modzelewski served as interim coach in the teams loss to the seattle seahawks on december sam rutigliano was named head coach and aided a healthy sipe in throwing touchdowns and garnering yards during the nfl season greg pruitt and mike pruitt led a rushing attack that gained almost yards but problems with the teams dismal pass defense resulted in the browns finishing on the year the campaign started with four consecutive wins three of which were in the final minute or overtime four more games were won by less than a touchdown this penchant for playing close games would later earn them the nickname quotkardiac kidsquot sipe threw touchdown passes tying him with steve grogan of new england patriotsnew england for most in the league but his interceptions also led the league mike pruitt had a pro bowl season with his rushing yards while the defense was still shaky ranking near the bottom in rushing defense the team finished behind division rivals houston oilershouston and pittsburgh steelerspittsburgh in a tough afc central the season is still fondly remembered by browns fans after splitting the first six games by going the browns won three straight games with fourthquarter comebacks and stopped a late comeback by the baltimore colts to win a fourth the browns won two more games in that fashion by the end of the season and even lost a game to the minnesota vikings on the last play when a hail mary pass was tipped into the waiting hands of ahmad rashad sipe passed for yards and touchdowns enough for him to be named the nfl mvp behind an offensive line that sent three members to the pro bowl doug dieken tom deleone and joe delamielleure the quotkardiac kidsquot name stuck a fourthquarter field goal by don cockroft in the final game against the cincinnati bengals helped the browns capture the division with an mark with the oakland raiders their opponent in the teams first playoff game in eight years however a heartbreaking end of this dramatic season came in the closing seconds when sipe called what became known as quotred right quot and passed toward the end zone only to watch oaklands mike davis football playermike davis intercept the ball the raiders went on to win the super bowl and quotred right quot has been cursed by cleveland sports fans ever since if was a dream season then was a nightmare sipe threw only touchdowns while being picked off times the browns went and few of their games were particularly close tight end ozzie newsome their only pro bowler had yards receiving for six touchdowns in brian sipe split quarterbacking duties with paul mcdonald and both put up similar numbers the browns had little success rushing or defending against it finishing in the bottom five teams in both yardage categories despite going cleveland was able to make the playoffs due to an expanded playoff system in the strikeshortened year they were matched up with the raiders in the playoffs but were easily defeated sipe and the browns got some of their spark back in sipe had touchdown passes and yards while mike pruitt ran for scores on yards cleveland even won two games in overtime and another in the fourth quarter a fourthquarter loss to the houston oilers in their secondtolast game dashed their playoff hopes at the browns finished one game behind the steelers and lost out on a wildcard spot due to a tiebreaker was a rebuilding year brian sipe defected to the upstart usfl after the season and paul mcdonald was named the starting quarterback mike pruitt missed much of the season and later ended up on the buffalo bills coach sam rutigliano lost his job after a start as marty schottenheimer took over the browns coasted to a record the bernie kosar years in nfl season the browns selected university of miami quarterback bernie kosar in the supplemental draft under schottenheimer and with kosar at quarterback the browns enjoyed noteworthy success reaching the playoffs each of the next five seasons advancing to the afc championship game three of those years kosar took over midway through the season from gary danielson and turned the struggling season around winning four of his six regular season starts two young rushers earnest byner and kevin mack ran for yards their record won them the top spot in a weak afc central and nearly shocked the miami dolphins in the divisional playoff before dan marino led a spirited secondhalf comeback to win the browns broke through into the ranks of the nfl elite with a showing in nfl season behind kosars yards passing and a defense with four pro bowlers chip banks hanford dixon bob golic and frank minnifield with the best record in the afc the browns clinched homefield advantage throughout the playoffs they needed it in the divisional playoff the new york jets were leading with less than four minutes to play and the browns driving when mark gastineau was called for roughing the passer on a rdand play the penalty gave cleveland a first down and the drive ended with a kevin mack touchdown run the jets went threeandout and the browns again drove the length of the field a mark moseley field goal tied it with seconds left and the game went to overtime moseley missed another field goal in the extra frame and the game then went to double overtime his second chance was good and the browns won in the secondlongest game in nfl history the afc championship game was against the denver broncos a team that would prove to be clevelands nemesis in this era like the week before it was a heartstopper that went to overtime but this time it was john elway and the broncos who came away the victors elway led a yard touchdown drive now often referred to as simply quotthe drivequot in the final five minutes ended with a yard pass to mark jackson footballmark jackson that tied the game at rich karlis won the game for denver with a field goal early in overtime the browns success was replicated in nfl season with touchdown passes and yards for kosar and eight pro bowlers kosar mack dixon golic minnifield linebacker clay matthews wide receiver gerald mcneil and offensive lineman cody risien at the browns won the afc central again cleveland easily defeated the indianapolis colts in the divisional playoff and travelled to denver for a rematch with the broncos in the afc championship with the score in favor of the broncos at halftime kosar led a thirdquarter comeback with two touchdowns by earnest byner and another by reggie langhorne early in the fourth quarter webster slaughters yard touchdown catch tied it at the broncos regained the lead with a yard sammy winder touchdown with under five minutes to go setting the stage for another browns comebackor so they thought kosar drove the browns to the broncos yard line with to go and handed off to byner when it looked like he had an open route to the end zone he was stripped of the ball by jeremiah castille the broncos recovered what became known as quotthe fumblequot after taking a safety the broncos shocked the browns again injuries to kosar and two of his backups sidelined them for much of the nfl season season but the browns still finished a finalweek comeback victory in a snowstorm at cleveland stadium over the houston oilers clinched them a wildcard playoff spot and a home game rematch against the oilers in the first round after mike pagel in for kosar threw a touchdown pass to webster slaughter late in the fourth quarter to pull the browns within a point at the browns had three chances to recover an onside kick due to penalties but the oilers recovered and stopped the cleveland comeback coach marty schottenheimer left the browns by mutual agreement with modell shortly after the loss to the oilers modell was tired of losing in the playoffs and schottenheimer was tired of what he perceived as modells interference with his coaching personnel and game strategy schottenheimer was quickly hired by the kansas city chiefs for the nfl season season bud carson was his replacement in cleveland but his tenure was short only one and a half years the season headlined by slaughters pro bowlworthy yards receiving was a success at until a tie with schottenheimers chiefs in november led to a game losing streak two comeback wins over the minnesota vikings and houston oilers in the seasons final two weeks kept them in the playoff race the tie ended up being the browns saving grace with their record winning them the afc central title and firstround bye over the oilers and pittsburgh steelers at the browns narrowly survived a scare from the buffalo bills in their divisional playoff game when scott norwood missed an extra point that would have pulled buffalo within points and later when jim kellys desperation pass to the end zone on the final play of the game was intercepted clevelands win set them up for a rematch with the broncos in denver for the afc championship while their two previous matchups went down to the wire this one was never in doubt the broncos led from start to finish and a long elway touchdown pass to sammy winder put the game way in the fourth quarter denver easily won in nfl season things began to unravel kosar threw more interceptions than touchdowns for the first time in his career and the team finished last in the league in rushing offense and near the bottom in rushing defense carson was fired after a start and the team finished secondworst in the league after the season bill belichick defensive coordinator of the thensuper bowl champion new york giants was named head coach setting off a chain of events that some fans believe led to the demise of the original franchise bill belichick and modells move the browns saw minimal improvement under belichick in nfl season finishing behind an improved performance by kosar touchdowns interceptions and a breakout season for secondyear running back leroy hoard in nfl season with kosar sitting out much of the season and mike tomczak in under center cleveland was in the thick of the afc central race before dropping their final three games to finish the browns were split by turmoil in nfl season when belichick made the controversial decision of benching bernie kosar in favor of vinny testaverde who had been signed from the tampa bay buccaneers the immensely popular kosar was later released by the team prompting a heated reaction from fans mostly aimed at belichick after kosars release cleveland won only two of its final nine games and finished with the same record that they did in cleveland righted the ship in nfl season despite fans still calling for belichicks head testaverde finished with a subpar year in which he threw interceptions to touchdowns but the defense led the league in yards allowed per attempt and sent four players to the pro bowl rob burnett football playerrob burnett pepper johnson michael dean perry and eric turner the browns finished and made the playoffs for the first time in four seasons in the wild card round against the new england patriots the browns defense picked off drew bledsoe three times with testaverde completing twothirds of his passes to win the archrival pittsburgh steelers ended the browns season in the divisional playoff with a blowout imagemodell movejpgthumbleftpxsports illustrated cover december team owner art modell announced on november that he had signed a deal to relocate the browns to baltimore maryland for nfl season the very next day on november voters overwhelmingly approved an issue that was placed on the ballot at art modells request before he made his secret deal providing million in tax dollars to rebuild cleveland municipal stadium art modells plan was later scrapped and additional money was added to demolish the old stadium and construct a new stadium for the browns the announcement was met with unprecedented resistance from browns fans with over lawsuits filed by fans the city of cleveland and a host of others most of which were later settled in their favor congress held hearings on the matter actorcomedian drew carey returned to his hometown of cleveland on november to host quotfan jamquot in protest of the proposed move virtually all of the teams sponsors immediately pulled their support leaving cleveland municipal stadium devoid of advertising during the teams final weeks the nfl season season was a disaster on the field too after starting the rumors and eventual announcement cast a pall on the team who finished when fans in the dawg pound became a little rowdy during their final home game against the cincinnati bengals action moving towards that end zone had to be moved to the opposite end of the field the browns won the only game the team won after the news of modells move got out grown men sat and wept after the final down was played led by mayor michael r whitemike white cleveland accepted a legal settlement that would keep the browns legacy in cleveland in february the national football league announced that the team would be deactivated for three years and that cleveland browns stadiuma new stadium would be built for a new cleveland browns team that would begin play in modell would in turn be granted a new franchise for baltimore the baltimore ravens retaining the current contracts of players and personnel the browns name colors history records awards and archives would remain in cleveland present welcome back browns imagecleveland browns b logopngrightframebrowns alternate logo in early the national football league began its search for an owner for the reborn browns finding one later in the year in al lerner a former limited partner of the original browns and a friend of art modell who assisted in modells move to baltimore during the period from other franchises such as tampa bay threatened their home cities with the possibility of moving to cleveland in order to put pressure on their respective cities to get more governmental funding for their own stadiums this despite the fact that cleveland would not accept such an arrangement lerner would usher in the teams rebirth in but would die in october four years to the day he was awarded the new browns franchise in death he would turn over the team to a trust controlled by his son randy lernerrandy the team returned with high hopes and expectations featuring solid ownership solid general management in the form of former san francisco ers president carmen policy and head coach chris palmer football coachchris palmer to date though the franchise has not lived up to its lofty early expectations with palmer being dismissed after the season and policy leaving the team in after having quottalked the talkquot but not quotwalking the walkquot palmer was succeeded by former university of miami coach butch davis despite a afc wild card qualification the team saw a dismal record during the next two seasons leading to butch davis resignation in december offensive coordinator terry robiskie was named interim head coach for the remainder of the season as super bowl xxxix approached there was much speculation over who would become the new head coach on january it was announced that phil savage signed on as general manager savage was previously an administrative member for the baltimore ravens and the browns before after the new england patriots victory over the philadelphia eagles at the super bowl patriots defensive coordinator romeo crennel signed on as the th head coach for the browns robiskie was kept on as part of crennels staff with the browns acquiring trent dilfer from the seattle seahawks and reuben droughns from the denver broncos the browns began on the wrong foot losing at home to their instate rival the cincinnati bengals they would go on the road and pick up their first win of the year against the green bay packers after losing to the indianapolis colts they used their bye week to regroup and pick up a comeback victory against the chicago bears however the browns couldnt keep the momentum going from their win and dropped four of their next five games a promising shutout of the miami dolphins proved to be a mirage when the team lost its next three straight games in the teams final five games rookie charlie frye served as the teams starting quarterback winning two of those contests however the two victories produced limited offense while one humiliating loss came at the hands of the pittsburgh steelers on december the browns ended their campaign at tied with the baltimore ravens for last place in the afc north though they technically finished in fourth place in the afc north based on a worse division record than the ravens to baltimores httpwwwnflcomstandingsconference just prior to the browns final game of the nfl season the teams front office became embroiled in a major controversy that threatened to once again send the team into rebuilding mode team president john collins american football executivejohn collins attempt to fire general manager phil savage caused such an uproar that it was collins who resigned on january seasonbyseason records start nfl sbs colspanquotquot alignquotcenterquot cleveland browns aafc st aafc west won aafc championship st aafc west won aafc championship st aafc west won aafc championship st aafc west won aafc championship colspanquotquot alignquotcenterquot merged into nfl st nfl afc won nfl championship st nfl afc lost nfl championship st louis ramsrams st nfl afc lost nfl championship detroit lionslions st nfl east lost nfl championship detroit lionslions st nfl east won nfl championship st nfl east won nfl championship tth nfl east st nfl east lost nfl championship detroit lionslions nd nfl east lost eastern conference playoff new york giantsgiants tnd nfl east nd nfl east rd nfl east rd nfl east nd nfl east st nfl east won nfl championship st nfl east lost nfl playoffs nfl championship green bay packerspackers tnd nfl east st nfl century lost nfl playoffs conference playoff game dallas cowboyscowboys st nfl century lost nfl playoffs nfl championship game indianapolis coltscolts st nfl century lost nfl playoffs nfl championship game minnesota vikingsvikings nd afc central st afc central lost nfl playoffs divisional playoffs indianapolis coltscolts nd afc central lost nfl playoffs divisional playoffs miami dolphinsdolphins rd afc central th afc central th afc central rd afc central th afc central rd afc central rd afc central st afc central lost nfl playoffs divisional playoffs oakland raidersraiders th afc central th afc conf lost nfl playoffs first round oakland raidersraiders nd afc central rd afc central st afc central lost nfl playoffs divisional playoffs miami dolphinsdolphins st afc central lost nfl playoffs conference championship denver broncosbroncos st afc central lost nfl playoffs conference championship denver broncosbroncos nd afc central lost nfl playoffs wild card playoffs tennessee titanshouston oilers st afc central lost nfl playoffs conference championship denver broncosbroncos th afc central rd afc central rd afc central rd afc central nd afc central lost nfl playoffs divisional playoffs pittsburgh steelerssteelers th afc central colspanquotquot rowspanquotquot valignquotmiddlequot alignquotcenterquot did not play th afc central th afc central rd afc central nd afc north lost nfl playoffs wild card playoffs pittsburgh steelerssteelers th afc north th afc north th afc north end box at the end of the nfl season the browns alltime record is including aafc amp nfl playoffs players of note current players templatecleveland browns roster pro football hall of famers imagedscn clevelandbrownsstadiumramp ejpgpxrightthumbentrance ramp of cleveland browns stadium jim brown paul brown joe delamielleure len ford frank gatski otto graham lou groza leroy kelly dante lavelli mike mccormack bobby mitchell marion motley ozzie newsome paul warfield bill willis retired numbers otto graham jim brown ernie davis don fleming lou groza not to be forgotten valignquottopquot tony adamle chip banks courtney brown football courtney brown earnest byner don cockroft gary collins tim couch andr davis hanford dixon chris gardocki bob golic robert griffith gene hickerson calvin hill leroy hoard kelly holcomb jim houston walter johnson football playerwalter johnson bernie kosar reggie langhorne kevin mack clay matthews eric metcalf frank minnifield quincy morgan bill nelson michael dean perry milt plum greg pruitt mike pruitt andre rison frank ryan football playerfrank ryan brian sipe webster slaughter vinny testaverde eric turner coaches head coaches paul brown blanton collier nick skorich forrest gregg dick modzelewski interim sam rutigliano marty schottenheimer bud carson jim shofner interim bill belichick chris palmer football coachchris palmer butch davis terry robiskie interim romeo crennel present current staff general manager phil savage head coach romeo crennel offensive coordinator maurice carthon defensive coordinator todd grantham special teams coach jerry rosburg quarterbacks coach rip scherer running backs coach dave atkins wide receivers coach terry robiskie tight ends coach ben coates offensive line coach jeff davidson offensive quality control marwan maalouf defensive line coach randy melvin linebackers coach mike haluchak defensive backs coach mel tucker defensive assistant bob trott defensive quality control cory undlin strength and conditioning john lott football coach john lott see also dawg pound references notebaltsun morgan jon httpwwwbaltimoresuncomsportsfootballbalmodellstory deal clears nfl path to baltimore the baltimore sun february notemodellorg scocca tom httpwwwcitypapercomcolumnsstoryaspid welcome to the big time baltimore city paper september external links httpwwwclevelandbrownscom cleveland browns official web site httpbrownsscoutcom the orange and brown report the obr httpwwwsportsecyclopediacomnflclevbrownshtml sports ecyclopediacom nfl categorycleveland browns category establishments categoryallamerica football conference categorynational football league teams decleveland browns frbrowns de cleveland itcleveland browns ptcleveland browns svcleveland brownstext revision page page titlecarbinetitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor ipip contributor comment postworld war ii comment text xmlspacepreserve this article is about the term quotcarbinequot in relation to firearms for information on the racehorse with the same name see carbine horse a carbine is a firearm similar to but generally shorter and less powerful than a rifle or musket of a given period there have been many carbines developed from rifles being essentially shorter rifles firing the same ammunition although usually at a lower velocity and there have also been many where the carbine and rifle adopted by a particular nation were not technically related such as using completely different ammunition or internal operating systems though the carbine still being weaker or of smaller size which is more common depends on the time period in the s carbines were generally smaller firearms for troops that rode on horses the foot soldiers would have a longer more powerful firearm and cavalry a shorter lighter firearm the relatively shorter length and lighter weight of carbines makes them easier to handle in closequarter combat situations such as urban or jungle warfare or when deploying from vehicles the disadvantages of carbines when compared with their longer counterparts are generally poorer longrange accuracy and shorter effective range imagemcarbinejpgthumbpxrightthe m carbine a compact version of the ma assault rifle with a collapsible stock and shorter barrel history early history of the carbine s and earlier the carbine was originally a lighter shorter weapon developed for cavalry soldiers for whom a fulllength musket or rifle was too heavy and awkward to fire from horseback carbines were usually less accurate and powerful than the longer rifles of the infantry due to a shorter sight plane and lower velocity of bullets fired from the shortened barrel with the advent of fastburning smokeless powder the velocity disadvantages of the shorter barrels became less of an issue see internal ballistics eventually the use of horsemounted cavalry would decline but carbines continued to be issued and used by many who preferred a lighter more compact weapon even at the cost of reduced longrange accuracy and power a shorter weapon was more convenient when riding on horses but it was also more convenient when riding in a truck armored personnel carrier helicopter or aircraft and also when engaged in closerange combat during the nineteenth century carbines were often developed separately from the infantry rifles and in many cases did not even use the same ammunition which made for supply difficulties a notable weapon developed towards the end of the american civil war by the union was the spencer carbine it had a spring powered magazine in the stock which held seven rounds in the late s it became common for a number of nations to make boltaction rifles in both fulllength and carbine versions one of the most popular and recognizable carbines was the winchester leveraction carbine with several versions using revolver cartridge firearmscartridges this made it an ideal choice for cowboys and explorers who could carry a revolver and a carbine both using the same ammunition another wellknown carbine was the spencer repeating carbine which was one of the first firearms to use a selfcontained metallic cartridge shorter rifles shorter carbines world war i and world war ii in the decades preceding world war i the standard battle rifle used by armies around the world had been growing shorter either by redesign or by the general issue of carbine versions instead of fulllength rifles for example the russian model rifle with a inch mm barrel was shortened to in mm in and to in mm in the german mauser rifles went from in mm in to in mm in as the karabiner kurz kk or quotshort carbinequot the barrel lengths in rifles used by the united states did not change between the boltaction m rifle of world war i and the world war ii m garand rifle but then the in mm barrel on the m was short for its day the us m carbine was more of a traditional carbine in that it was significantly shorter and lighter with an in barrel mm than the m garand rifle the m carbine was not a shorter version of the m garand but a wholly different design firing a smaller lesspowerful cartridge as was common in the s postworld war ii based on the combat experience of wwii the criteria used for selecting infantry weapons began to change unlike previous wars which were often fought mainly from fixed lines and trenches wwii was a highly mobile war and often fought in cities forests or other areas where mobility and visibility were restricted in addition improvements in artillery made moving infantry in open areas even more suicidal than it had been the majority of enemy contacts were at ranges of less than meters yards and the enemy was exposed to fire for only short periods of time as they moved from cover to cover most rounds fired were not aimed at an enemy combatant but instead fired in the enemys direction to keep them from moving and firing back see suppressive fire these situations did not require a heavy rifle firing fullpower rifle bullets with longrange accuracy a lesspowerful weapon would still produce casualties at the shorter ranges encountered in actual combat and the reduced recoil would allow more shots to be fired in the short amount of time an enemy was visible the lowerpowered round would also weigh less allowing a soldier to carry more ammunition with no need of a long barrel to fire fullpower ammunition a shorter barrel could be used a shorter barrel made the weapon weigh less and was easier to handle in tight spaces and was easier to shoulder quickly to fire a shot at an unexpected target automatic firearmfullautomatic fire was also considered a desirable feature allowing the soldier to fire short bursts of three to five rounds increasing the probability of a hit on a moving target the germans had experimented with selectivefire carbines firing rifle cartridges during the early years of ww these were determined to be less than ideal as the recoil of fullpower rifle cartridges caused the weapon to be uncontrollable in fullautomatic fire they then developed an intermediatepower cartridge round which was accomplished by reducing the power and the length of the standard x mm rifle cartridge to create the x mm kurz short cartridge a selectivefire weapon was developed to fire this shorter cartridge eventually resulting in the sturmgewehr literally quotstorm gunquot later translated as quotassault riflequot after wwii the ussr would adopt a similar weapon the wellknown ak which became the standard soviet infantry weapon the united states during wwii also had the m carbinem carbine a selectivefire version of the m carbine firing a xmm cartridge however the semiautomatic m carbine was produced in a to ratio to the m although the nato countries did not adopt an intermediatepower round they continued the trend toward shorter and lighter magazine firearmmagazinefed battle rifles nato adopted the nato x mm nato round which in reality is only slightly less powerful than the springfield and more powerful than the british along with several rifles such as the fn fal and m riflem by the s nato had adopted the nato x mm nato cartridge this round was even lighter and smaller than the soviet ak cartridge but possessed higher velocity and roughly the same muzzle energy in us service the m riflem assault rifle replaced the m as the standard infantry weapon although the m continued in use by designated marksmen the trend was continuing lighter carbines were being adopted as the standard infantry long rifle what changed was that a certain amount of soldiers were now retaining longer range weapons designated marksmen development of lighter assault rifles continued with even lighter carbines keeping pace at the same time the infantry switched to mm weapons carbines like the aksu which fired a warsaw pact x mm m x mm round and car were being developed modern history carbine use in contemporary military forces by the s the us had adopted the m carbine a derivative of the m family which was lighter and shorter in overall length and barrel length subsequently resulting in reduced range and power in addition due to the development of body armor support personnel required a compact weapon with more stopping power than the traditional pistol leading to the development of the personal defense weapon or pdw which uses rounds that have better ballistics than simple pistol rounds but less power and range than full rifle rounds examples include the fn p and hk mp whether these ultralight weapons will receive widespread adoption has yet to be seen in particular it is questionable whether their stopping power is adequate the cartridge used by the fn p the x mm for example fires a grain g armor piercing bullet at velocities of around fts ms this gives similar ballistics to the high velocity loadings in the wmr winchester magnum rimfire round which is generally considered wholly inadequate for defensive use the hampk mp fires an even smaller mm round with ballistics similar to the wmr derived hornady magnum rimfire the small diameter rounds enable the projectile to travel at the high velocity needed to penetrate kevlar armor as a light weapon with sufficient energy to push a large caliber bullet through the armor would have prohibitive recoil the small bullets however do not have much wounding power they are generally designed to tumble after penetration and while that works in theory other tumbling rounds such as the x mm and the x mm have shown erratic performance in the field see below meanwhile many armies are experiencing a backlash against carbines and lighter rifles in general and are equipping selected soldiers usually called designated marksman or dm with higher power rifles while firing more smaller bullets makes it easier to hit a target and is good for beginner marksmen it offers very little to more advanced marksmen in addition the additional range of the heavier weapons has proven to be necessary in open environments such as deserts as a result the focus on more highly trained soldiers equipped with for example mm nato firing rifles such as the us marine corps designated marksman rifle variant of the m has increased somewhat a squad of soldiers armed with assault rifles would have a single soldier assigned as dm who would carry a battle rifle for selectively engaging long range targets the dm differs from the sniper in that the dm is highly mobile moving with his unit and engages targets at ranges beyond the metres yd effective range of modern assault rifles but less than the metre yd range which is the optimal engagement range for snipers special operations forces one bastion of the carbine which is unlikely to be unseated is the special operations forces of the world because of the need to perform fast decisive operations a pistol is viewed as not having enough power a pistol is conversely very light and aids in the speed of the operator consequently carbines have gained wide acceptance among socom and other communities an example of this would be the springfield armory socom which is a in mm barreled carbine chambered in winchester winchester nato with a composite stock and lighter parts as well as increased sight aperture or advancedcombatopticalgunsightacog the rifle maintains a high degree of accuracy for close quarters battle as well as being serviceable to ranges up to yards m the rifle maintains light weight and has far superior stopping power to most pistol cartridges additionally with and round magazines the firepower is dramatically preferable to a pistol personal defense weapons in both civilian use and among the militarys lighter armored soldiers it is common to use a carbine however due to some of the reasons mentioned elsewhere in this article such as muzzle blast and recoil these carbines are generally chambered in lighter rounds than some of their heavier or shorter counterparts due to the low wounding power of a single round personal defense weapons depend on high volumes of fire for effectiveness this may make such carbines successful in military use in civilian use where fully automatic fire is impractical or illegal and shot placement is more critical acceptance may be lower as a pistol involves single shots however firing a pistol effectively at any significant range requires good training since the absence of a buttstock makes precise ranged aim difficult future acceptance and use to what extent armies will adopt even lighter carbines and to what extent they will be avoided has yet to be seen entirely it is likely that harder hitting or at least higher penetrating weapons will become more common due to a rise in use of body armor making weaker weapons ineffective stacked against this is mainly the amount of urban warfare that is required which favours lighter carbine weapons the modern usage of the term carbine covers much the same scope as it always had of lighter weapons generally rifles with barrels of less than about inches mm these weapons can be considered carbines while rifles with barrels of inches mm or more are generally not considered carbines unless specifically named so and depending on the weapon power modern carbines are chambered in calibers from pistol calibers to full power rifle cartridges usually up to but not including the high velocity magnum rifle cartridges in the more powerful cartridges the short barrel of a carbine has significant disadvantages in velocity and the high residual pressure when the bullet exits the barrel results in substantially greater wiktionarymuzzle blastmuzzle blast flash suppressors and wiktionarymuzzle brakemuzzle brakes are common solutions to this problem which may ease their acceptance for the military and security forces there is emerging a wide range of less than lethal pdw options these range from tasers to microwave beam type weapons usage pistol caliber carbines one of the more unusual classes of carbine is the pistol caliber carbine these first appeared soon after metallic cartridges became common these were developed as quotcompanionsquot to the popular revolvers of the day firing the same cartridge but allowing more velocity and accuracy than the revolver these were carried by cowboys lawmen and others in the old west the classic combination would be a winchester rifle winchester lever action carbine and a colt revolver in or colt modern equivalents also exist such as the ruger police carbine which uses the same magazine as the ruger pistols of the same caliber the beretta cx storm shares magazines with many beretta pistols and shares its design with the beretta px storm pistol the recent introduction of such products may indicate that there is a growing demand for these companion carbines the primary advantage of a pistol caliber carbine other than the usuallyadded buttstock or shoulder rest for increased accuracy is the fact that in general a longer barrel will yield higher projectile velocity this results in greater stopping power and increased ability to penetrate body armor additionally many pistol calibers such as acp have much heavier projectiles such as grain g than rifles do grains g being common in caliber rounds like and ultra carbines firearms with shoulder stocks and barrels less than in mm in length are classified as quotshort barreled riflesquot under the us national firearms act or nfa and are sometimes restricted in the same way that sawnoff shotgunsawed off shotguns and machine guns are because of this rifles with barrels of less than in mm or pistols with shoulder stocks are rare quotkitsquot exist which will convert a glock pistol to a carbine air carbines in the world of airguns there is a small but growing class of what are also called quotultra carbinesquot that have extremely short barrels these may be rifles with barrels cut down to as short as inches mm or pistols converted into carbines with the addition of a shoulder stocks these are generally not restricted legally in the same way some firearms are other carbines another class of carbine is a semiautomatic version of a submachine gun with an extended barrel just over inches mm long which will escape ban by some quotassault weaponquot legislation while functionally identical to other carbines these are banned in some places as quotassault weaponsquot based on their cosmetic similarity to submachine guns however they may not accept certain parts such as magazines or collapsing stocks from the submachine guns they resemble these are a popular compromise for american shooters who would like to own a submachine gun but cannot due to local restrictions or the prohibitive cost of buying a civilian legal submachine gun since the end of the federal assault weapons banclinton assault weapons ban this has become less prohibitive while these submachine gun lookalikes are acceptable for use for self defense the media generally portrays them as being used for violent crime as such this may make them a poor choice for a personal defense weapon this does not deter many of the more vocal proponents of personal defense firearms who typically recommend a pistol and a higher power weapon like a carbine or a shotgun in some historical cases the term machine carbine was the official title for submachine guns examples are the sten and owen guns equally to confuse the nonautomatic version of the sterling submachine gun was also a quotcarbinequot see also m carbine m carbine m carbine m carbine xm carbine de lisle carbine categoryrifles bg dakarabin dekarabiner escarabina he nokarabin plkarabinek bro ptcarabina slkarabinka svkarbin zhtext revision page page titleconcrete musictitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamecamembertusername idid contributor minor commentfix double redircomment text xmlspacepreserveredirect musique concrtetext revision page page titlechinese cuisinetitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernameldhanusername idid contributor minor comment typical dishes comment text xmlspacepreservecuisineofchina cookbook chinese cuisine is widely seen as representing one of the richest and most diverse culinary heritages in the world it originated in different regions of china and has been introduced to other parts of the world from southeast asia to north america and western europe a meal in chinese culture is typically seen as consisting of two general components a carbohydrate source or starch known as in the chinese language zhsh ltsupgtpinyinltsupgt lit quotmain foodquot staple typically rice noodles or mantou steamed buns and accompanying dishes of vegetables fish meat or other items known as ciltsupgtpinyinltsupgt lit quotvegetablequot in the chinese language this culturecultural conceptualization is in some ways in contrast to western cuisinewestern meals where meat or proteinanimal protein is often considered the main coursemain dish as is well known throughout the world rice is a critical part of much of chinese cuisine however in many parts of china particularly north china wheatbased products including noodles and mantousteamed buns predominate in contrast to south china where rice is dominant despite the importance of rice in chinese cuisine at extremely formal occasions it is sometimes the case that no rice at all will be served in such a case rice would only be provided when no other dishes remained soup is usually served at the end of a meal to satiate ones appetite owing to western influences serving soup in the beginning of a meal is also quite normal in modern times chopsticks are the primary eating utensil in chinese culture for solid foods while soups and other liquids are enjoyed ref with a wide flatbottomed spoon traditionally made of ceramic it is reported that wooden chopsticks are losing their dominance due to recent logging shortfalls in china and east asia many chinese eating establishments are considering a switch to a more environmentally sustainable eating utensil such as plastic chopsticks on the other hand disposable chopsticks made of woodbamboo have all but replaced reusable ones in small resturants in most dishes in chinese cuisine foods are prepared in smaller pieces eg vegetable meat tofudoufu ready for direct picking up and eating traditionally chinese culture considered using knifeknives and forks at the table quotbarbarianbarbaricquot due to fact that these implements are regarded as weapons fish are usually cooked and served whole with diners directly pulling pieces from the fish with chopsticks to eat unlike in some other cuisines where they are first filleted this is because it is desired for fish to be served as fresh as possible a common chinese saying quotincluding head and tailquot refers to the wholeness and completion of a certain task or in this case the display of food spoon and fork are most often used by malaysian chinese and singaporean chinese eating at home and are provided in many restaurantsespecially quotcoffee housesquot or kopi tiam some chinese prefer to eat white rice with a spoon even while eating other dishes with chopsticks many school cafeterias canteens in china provide only spoons for students eating not chopsticks due to their reusability and ease of washing in a chinese meal each individual diner is given their own bowl of rice while the accompanying dishes are served in communal plates or bowls which are shared by everyone sitting at the table in western cultures this communal style of service is known as quotfamily stylequot in the chinese meal each diner picks food out of the communal plates on a bitebybite basis with their chopsticks this is in constrast to western meals where it is customary to dole out individual servings of the dishes at the beginning of the meal many nonchinese are unaccustomed in allowing a persons individual food utensils which might have traces of a persons saliva to touch the communal plates for this hygiene issue some chinese families use additional serving spoons or chopsticks lit commonpublicshared chopsticks to move the pieces of the food from the communal plates to the persons rice bowl the food selected is often eaten together with a mouthful of rice vegetarianism is not uncommon or unusual in china though as is the case in the west is still only practiced by a relatively small proportion of the population the chinese vegetarian does not eat a lot of tofu unlike the stereotypical impression in the west most chinese vegetarians are buddhists nonchinese eating chinese cuisine will note that a large number of vegetable dishes may actually contain meat as meat chunks or bits have been traditionally used to flavor dishes in chinese cuisine chinese buddhist cuisine has many true vegetarian dishes no meat at all for much of chinas history human manure has been used as fertilizer due to the large human population and the relative scarcity of farm animals in china for this reason raw food especially raw vegetables such as salad has not been part of the traditional chinese diet nutritiondiet desserts as such are less typical in chinese culture than in the west chinese meals do not typically end with a dessert or dessert course as is common in western cuisine instead sweet foods are often introduced during the course of the meal with no firm distinction made for instance the basi fruit dishes sizziling sugar syrup coated fruits such as banana or apple are eaten alongside other quotsavouryquot dishes that would be considered quotmain coursequot items in the west however many sweet foods and dessert snacks do exist in chinese cuisine many are fried and several incorporate red bean paste dousha bean paste is also used in japanese cuisine the matuan is filled with dousha and fried it is often eaten for breakfast some steamed bun items are filled with dousha some of these are in the shape of peaches an important chinese cultural symbol another dessert is babao fan or quoteight treasure rice puddingquot if dessert is served at the end of the meal by far the most typical choice is fresh fruit such as sliced oranges the second most popular choice is a type of sweet soup typically made with azuki beanred beans and sugar this soup is served warm in chinese culture cold beverages are believed to be harmful to digestion of hot food so items like icecold water or soft drinks are traditionally not served at mealtime besides soup if any other beverages are served they would most likely be hot tea or hot water tea is believed to help in the digestion of yellow greasegreasy foods varieties due to the large and varied characteristics of china itself a multitude of different regional and other eg religious styles can be identified in the larger complex of chinese cuisine regions of mainland china cuisine name derives from province or region except where indicated northwestern chinese cuisine mandarin cuisine jianghuai cuisine northeastern chinese cuisine cantonese cuisine guangdong province chiuchow cuisine chaozhou region guangdong hakka cuisine hakka peoplehakka ethnic group hunan cuisine shanghai cuisine sichuan cuisine fujian cuisine yunnan cuisine hainan cuisine other regions cuisine of hong kong macanese conichywacuisine taiwanese cuisine nanyang chinese cuisine cuisine of the nanyang geographical regionnanyang region or southeast asia chinese diaspora other categories historical chinese cuisine chinese islamic cuisine chinese buddhist cuisine typical dishes imagechinese mealjpgthumbchinese mealpxrighta chinese meal in suzhou jiangsu province with bowls of white rice shrimp eggplant fermented tofu vegetable stirfries vegetarian duck and a central dish with meat and bamboo there are bowls of rice one for each person fried rice jiaozi filled dumplings potsticker shallow fried jiaozi chinese noodlesnoodles fried noodles noodle soup kung pao chicken hotpot fried pancakes including green onion pancakes zongzi rice balls wrapped in leaves peking duck the trademark dish of beijing baozi filled steamed buns dim sum originated in guangzhou canton and hong kong steamed fish tofu dishes breakfast foods century egg pi dan lit leather egg hundredday old egg or preserved egg tea egg cha ye dan hard boiled egg foodegg soaked or stewed in tea congee zhou rice porridge picklingpickled vegetables jiang cai lit sauced vegetables soy milk dou nai or dou jiang in either sweet or quotsaltyquot form youtiao quotcow tongue pastryquot or other fried chinese doughfoods shaobing a flaky baked or panseared dough pastry rice balls fan tuan with savory fillings or coatings starches mantou steamed bread white rice chinese noodlesnoodles other east asian cuisines china shares much with the culinary heritage of other regions of east asia in addition to some contrasts compare japanese cuisine singaporean cuisine and vietnamese cuisine among others chinese cuisine in diaspora see american chinese cuisine and canadian chinese cuisine for the development of chinese cuisine in north america chinese cuisine is also highly developed in western europe within the united states the cuisine of hawaii contains many chinese foods and chinese influences due to the high number of chinese and asian immigrants however chineseoriginated or inspired foods are often combined with those of other cuisines in novel ways contemporary health trends according to the united nations food and agriculture organization estimates for of the population of the peoples republic of china were undernourished httpwwwfaoorgesessyearbookvolpdfchinapdf the number of undernourished people in the country has fallen from million in to million in httpwwwfaoorgfaostatfoodsecurityfilesnumberundernourishmentxls the country still receives international food aid but the world food program notes that the country achieved its goal of national agricultural selfsufficiency in the mid s the wfp says hunger is concentrated in rural resourcepoor areas of northern northwestern and southwestern china httpwwwwfporgcountrybriefindexcountryaspregionampsectionampsubsectionampcountry a typical chinese peasant before industrialization would have eaten meat rarely and most meals would have consisted of rice accompanied with green vegetables with protein coming from foods like peanuts fats and sugar were luxuries not eaten on a regular basis by most of the population in chinese traditional culture being overweight was a sign of prosperity and wealth as only the wealthy could afford fatty or sweet foods or even buy enough food to become fat as income levels have increased chinese diets have become richer with more meats fats and sugar being consumed while economic change has significantly reduced undernourishment new health problems related to overconsumption and poor dietary choices have increased significantly the incidence of nutritionrelated disease and overweightness including obesity especially among children has risen dramatically in mainland china over the last years httpenglishpeoplecomcnenghtml health advocates put some of the blame on the increased popularity of western foods especially fast food and other culinary products and habits many western especially american fast food chains have appeared in china and are highly successful economically these include mcdonaldsmcdonalds and kentucky fried chicken kfc note note note in most variety linguisticsvarieties or dialects of chinese languagechinese the verb for consuming soup is actually translatable literally as quotdrinkquot lt adverb and other prons ad ions should be done gt reference how to cook and eat in chinese buwei yang chao first ed external links httpwwwchopstixcom chopstix ampmdash from the uk httpchinesefoodaboutcom aboutcom ampmdash from the usa httpwwwthatsqingdaocom thats qingdao qingdao travel guide available in english and chinese httpwwwchineserestaurantsonlinecom chinese restaurants online see also cantonese restaurant chinese american cuisine canadian chinese cuisine list of chinese dishes wok hei categorychinese cuisine dakinesisk madlavning dechinesische kche ethiina kk frcuisine chinoise he ja ko nlchinese keuken plkuchnia chiska robuctrie chinezeasc ru zhtext revision page page titlecasimir ivtitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernameappleseedusername idid contributor text xmlspacepreserveredirect kazimierz iv jagiellontext revision page page titleconstantin brancusititle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernameorioaneusername idid contributor commentlifecomment text xmlspacepreserveconstantin brancusi february ampndash march originally constantin brncui ipakonstantin brnku was a romanian sculpturesculptor born in hobita gorjhobia gorj near targu jiutrgu jiu where he placed his sculptural ensemble of constantin brancusi from trgu jiusculptural ensemble with the table of silence the gate of the kiss and the endless column life brancusi studied art at the coala de meserii school of arts and crafts in craiova from to and at the coala naional de arte frumoase national school of fine arts in bucharest from to wishing to further his education in paris he arrived there in and enrolled in the cole des beauxarts in as an art student he was influenced by auguste rodin but his style moved beyond naturalist representation to stylized elegant forms brancusi was one of the first sculptors to experiment with abstract art although never in his own view moving into pure abstraction his sculpturesculptures became progressively smoother and less figurative until only the barest outline of the original subject was left venturing even farther away from figurative sculpture than his countryman and contemporary dimitrie paciurea brancusi produced a series of sculptures in metal called bird in space edward steichen a prominent photographer purchased one of these birds and tried to bring it into the united states under us customs code works of art may be imported into the country dutyfree however customs officers did not accept the bird as a work of art and assessed a duty of classifying it as a propeller blade subsequently a trial overturned the assessment constantin brancusi lived and worked from to in his workshop located in the impasse ronsin in the me arrondissement parisme arrondissement of paris the original workshop has disappeared and has been rebuilt near the centre georges pompidou located in the montparnasse cemetery are statues carved by brancusi for a few fellow artists who committed suicide the bestknown of which is his le baiser the kiss brancusi died on march and was buried in the cimetire du montparnasse parisparis france legacy his works are housed in the new york museum of modern art and in the national museum of art of romania in bucharest as well as in other major museums around the world brancusis onetime studio in paris is open to the public it is very close to the pompidou centre in the rue rambuteau he bequeathed part of his collection to the french state on condition that his workshop be rebuilt as it was on the day he died in a sculpture by brancusi named danaide sold for united states dollar million the highest that a sculpture piece had ever sold for at auction in may a piece from the bird in space series broke that record selling for united states dollar million in a christies auction httpmoneycnncomnewsnewsmakersbrancusireutindexhtmcnnyes quotations the people who call my work abstract are imbeciles what they call abstract is in fact the purest realism artsrealism the reality of which is not represented by external form but by the idealismidea behind it the essence of the work create like a god command like a king work like a slave selected works the endless column bird in space series sleeping muse httpwwwartcyclopediacommasterscanslhtml imagebrancusijpgnewborn external links commonscatconstantin brancusi httpwwwsculturaitalianacomgalleriaesterobrancusiconstantinindexhtml images of brancusi sculptures httpengcomipsecrobrancusiindexhtml constantin brancusi pioneer of abstract sculpture category birthsbrancusi constantin category deathsbrancusi constantin categorymodern sculptorsbrancusi constantin categoryromanian sculptorsbrancusi constantin categoryromanianfrench peoplebrancusi constantin deconstantin brncui esconstantin brancusi eoconstantin brncui frconstantin brncui itconstantin brancusi he nlconstantin brancusi plconstantin brncui roconstantin brncui ru svconstantin brancusitext revision page page titleclaus slutertitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamepathoschildusername idid contributor minor commentreverted edits by specialcontributions user talktalk to last version by sparkitcomment text xmlspacepreserveclaus sluter was a fourteenth century dutchburgundian sculptor and the most important northern european sculptor of his age he restored figural sculpture to its former classical era monumental scale and naturalism he is considered a pioneer of quotnorthern realismquot his most famous surviving work is the well of moses created for a carthusian abbeymonastery built by philip the bold near dijon sculptorstub categoryfrench sculptorssluter claus categorygothic sculptorssluter claus declaus sluter svclaus slutertext revision page page titlecadillac michigantitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor ipip contributor comment overview comment text xmlspacepreservecadillac is a city in the us state of michigan and is the county seat of wexford county michiganwexford county as of the united states census census the city had a total population of the city is situated at the junction of us highway and michigan state highway the city is between haring township michiganharing township on the north and clam lake township michiganclam lake township on the south cadillac became the county seat after the socalled quotbattle of mantonquot in which a show of force was involved in enforcing a controversial decision to move the county seat from manton michigan overview although european explorers and traders visited the area since the s permanent white settlement did not begin until much later initial settlements were connected with the logging industry cadillac was originally called clam lake and was incorporated as a village in it changed its name and incorporated as the city of cadillac three years later in named after antoine laumet de la mothe sieur de cadillac a frenchman who made the first permanent settlement at detroit michigandetroit in many early settlers were swedenswedish and two of cadillacs sister cities are mlnlycke sweden and rovaniemi finland cadillac was also home to the michigan iron works company which manufactured shay locomotives for a short time in the early s the acre lake cadillac is entirely within the city limits and some claim it is the largest lake entirely in any city in the united states the larger acre lake mitchell is nearby on the west side of the city with feet of shoreline within the citys municipal boundary the lakes were connected by a stream which was replaced in by the clam lake canal lake cadillac was formerly known as little clam lake while lake mitchell was big clam lake lake mitchell was renamed for george a mitchell a railroad executive in the s the canal was featured on ripleys believe it or not in the s because in winter the canal freezes before the lakes and then after the lakes freeze the canal thaws and remains unfrozen for the rest of the winter although it is illegal to attempt to use a snowmobile to cross the open water on the canal some individuals occasionally try to do so since the decline of the logging industry tourism become the main industry in cadillac however manufacturing now rivals tourism as the main industry in the city cadillac has achieved recognition throughout michigan as a leader in the growth of industrial development industries include the manufacture of pleasure boats automotive parts water well components vacuum cleaners and rubber products but yearround tourism is still a mainstay of the local economy in the summer tourists come for the boating fishing hiking mountain biking and camping in the fall they come for the hunting and color tours the winter is possibly the busiest season of all as motels are packed with downhill skiers crosscountry skiers icefishers snowshoers and most of all snowmobilers the north american snowmobile festival nasf is held on frozen lake cadillac every winter cadillac sits on the eastern edge of the manistee national forest and the surrounding area is heavily wooded with mixed hardwood and conifer forests the main agricultural industry in the area is christmas tree tree farmfarming in fact cadillac was chosen in to donate the christmas tree to sit on the lawn of the us capitol building in washington dc thirstys a gas station on m right outside of cadillacs city limits was the home of samantha or quotsam the bearquot from the s through the late s when sam died of old age sam was the only brown bear in captivity in the us at the time to hibernate naturally sam lived in a large cage in front of the gas station and was lovingly fed ice cream cones by tourists every summer in the rock group kiss played a free concert for the town in honor of the high school football team who wore kiss makeup during games based on a single limited study involving twenty people some people have labelled cadillac as one of three quothot spotsquot for amyotrophic lateral sclerosislou gehrigs disease in the us however the study made no attempt to ascertain the occurrence of the disease in other parts of the state or elsewhere in the country the study was designed to examine the possible occurence of the disease due to genetic influences httpwwwcnsjrnmsueduarticlesdiseasehtml the occurrence of the disease within the city limits of cadillac is reportedly over times the normal rate the cause of the abnormally large occurrence of the disease in cadillac is as of yet unknown geography imagemimapdotoncadillacpngrightlocation of cadillac michigan according to the united states census bureau the city has a total area of square kilometrekm square milemi km mi of it is land and km mi of it is water the total area is water demographics as of the censusgeographic referencesltsupgtltsupgt of there are people households and families residing in the city the population density is km mi there are housing units at an average density of km mi the racial makeup of the city is white us censuswhite african american us censusblack or race us censusafrican american native american us censusnative american asian us censusasian pacific islander us censuspacific islander from race us censusother races and from two or more races of the population are hispanic americanhispanic or latino us censuslatino of any race there are households out of which have children under the age of living with them are marriagemarried couples living together have a female householder with no husband present and are nonfamilies of all households are made up of individuals and have someone living alone who is years of age or older the average household size is and the average family size is in the city the population is spread out with under the age of from to from to from to and who are years of age or older the median age is years for every females there are males for every females age and over there are males the median income for a household in the city is and the median income for a family is males have a median income of versus for females the per capita income for the city is of the population and of families are below the poverty line out of the total population of those under the age of and of those and older are living below the poverty line colleges httpwwwbakereducampusresourcescadillaccacinfocfm baker collegecadillac external links httpwwwcadillacminet city of cadillac httpwwwcadillacmichigancom cadillac area home page httpwwwcadillacpostcardscom antique photos and postcards of cadillac categorywexford county michigan categorycities in michigan categorycounty seats in michigan frcadillac michigantext revision page page titlechildrenstitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernameandre engelsusername idid contributor minor commentchanged redirectcomment text xmlspacepreserveredirect childtext revision page page titlecointelprotitle idid restrictionsmoveeditrestrictions revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamerich farmbroughusername idid contributor minor commentcedcomment text xmlspacepreservecointelpro is an acronym counter intelligence program for a program of the united states federal bureau of investigation aimed at investigating and disrupting dissident political organizations within the united states although covert operations have been employed throughout fbi history the formal cointelpro operations of were broadly targeted against organizations that were at the time considered to have politically radical elements ranging from those whose stated goal was the violent overthrow of the us government such as the weathermen to nonviolent civil rights groups such as martin luther king jrs southern christian leadership conference to racist and segregationist groups like the ku klux klan and the american nazi party the founding document of cointelpro directed fbi agents to quotexpose disrupt misdirect discredit or otherwise neutralizequot the activities of these dissident movements and their leaders history cointelpro began in and was designed to quotincrease factionalism cause disruption and win defectionsquot inside the communist party usacommunist party usa cpusa however the program was soon enlarged to include disruption of the socialist workers party the ku klux klan africanamerican nationalist groups including the black panther party and the nation of islam and the entire new left sociopolitical movment which included antiwar community and religious groups opponents of cointelpro point out that many of these groups such as the ku klux klan had no links to communism or foreign powersfact a later investigation by the senates church committee see below stated that quotcointelpro began in in part because of frustration with supreme court rulings limiting the governments power to proceed overtly against dissident groupsquotrefchurch congress and several court casesfact later concluded that the cointelpro operations against communist and socialist groups exceeded statutory limits on fbi activity and violated constitutional guarantees of freedom of speech and association supporters of the program argue that the project was rooted in the bureaus knowledge that some domestic leftwing and radical organizations were manipulated by hostile foreign intelligence agencies for example the fbi had access to the venona decrypts that showed the soviet union and its kgb manipulated and worked under the cover of the communist party usacpusa for espionage purposes and to incite domestic unrest in the united states some of the largest cointelpro campaigns targeted the socialist workers party usasocialist workers party the quotnew leftquot including several antiwar groups such as the students for a democratic society and the student nonviolent coordinating committee black liberation groups such as the black panthers and the republic of new africa puerto rican independence groups the american indian movement and the weather underground the program was secret until when an fbi field office was burglarized by a group of leftwing radicals calling themselves the citizens commission to investigate the fbi several dossiers of files were taken and the information passed to news agencies within the year director j edgar hooverhoover declared that the centralized cointelpro was over and that all future counterintelligence operations would be handled on a casebycase basis further documents were revealed in the course of separate lawsuits filed against the fbi by nbc correspondent carl stern the swp and a number of other groups a major investigation was launched in by the select committee to study governmental operations with respect to intelligence activities of the united states senate commonly referred to as the quotchurch committeequot for its chairman senator frank church of idaho however millions of pages of documents remain unreleased and many released documents are entirely censored in the final report of the select committee cointelpro was castigated in no uncertain terms quotmany of the techniques used would be intolerable in a democratic society even if all of the targets had been involved in violent activity but cointelpro went far beyond thatthe bureau conducted a sophisticated vigilante operation aimed squarely at preventing the exercise of first amendment rights of speech and association on the theory that preventing the growth of dangerous groups and the propogation of dangerous ideas would protect the national security and deter violencequotrefchurchcastigation the church committee documented a history of the fbi being used for purposes of political repression as far back as world war i through the s when they were charged with rounding up quotanarchists and revolutionariesquot for deportation and then building from through the fbi claims that it no longer undertakes cointelpro or cointelprolike operations however critics claim that agency programs in the spirit of cointelpro target groups like the committee in solidarity with the people of el salvador earth first and the antiglobalization movement methods according to brian glick cointelpro used a broad array of methods including infiltration agents and informers did not merely spy on political activists their main purpose was to discredit and disrupt their very presence served to undermine trust and scare off potential supporters the fbi and police exploited this fear to smear genuine activists as agentsrefinfiltration psychological warfare from the outside the fbi and police used myriad other quotdirty tricksquot to undermine these movements they planted false media stories and published bogus leaflets and other publications in the name of targeted groups they forged correspondence sent anonymous letters and made anonymous telephone calls they spread misinformation about meetings and events set up pseudo movement groups run by government agents and manipulated or strongarmed parents employers landlords school officials and others to cause trouble for activistsrefpsychologicalwarfare harassment through the legal system the fbi and police abused the legal system to harass dissidents and make them appear to be criminals officers of the law gave perjured testimony and presented fabricated evidence as a pretext for false arrests and wrongful imprisonment they discriminatorily enforced tax laws and other government regulations and used conspicuous surveillance quotinvestigativequot interviews and grand jury subpoenas in an effort to intimidate activists and silence their supporters breakins the fbi conducted quotblack bagquot jobs against the targeted groups and their membersrefblackbag extralegal force and violence the fbi instigated violence and its paid informants carried out assaults beatings and in many cases murdersrefextralegalforceandviolence glick war at home supporters of the fbi argue that the bureau was convinced that there was such a threat of domestic subversion posed by radical groups that extraordinary efforts were required to forestall violence and revolutionary insurgency critics counter that this perception was flawed and in the words of glick in the case of quotradical black and puerto rican activists and later native americans these attacksincluding political assassinationswere so extensive vicious and calculated that they can accurately be termed a form of official quotterrorismquot glick war at home hoover was willing to use false claims to attack his political enemies in one memo he wrote quotpurpose of counterintelligence action is to disrupt the black panther party and it is immaterial whether facts exist to substantiate the chargequot in the fbi special agent in san francisco wrote hoover that his investigation of the black panther party revealed that in his city at least the black nationalists were primarily feeding breakfast to children hoover fired back a memo implying the career ambitions of the agent were directly related to his supplying evidence to support hoovers view that the bpp was quota violence prone organization seeking to overthrow the government by revolutionary meansquot on memorial day during the university of california berkeleys explosive political response to the bombing of cambodia the jimi hendrix experienced played at the berkeley community center as a condition of safepassage for the event the communityrelations consultant retained to quotcooloutquot the locals introduced jimi hendrix to the wives of the leaders of the black panther party artie seal and pat hilliard the meeting was restricted to the principals and afterward the announcement was made that jimi hendrix would perform a benefit concert for the panthers black amp white at oakland colosseum during september it was not to be cointelpro operatives in london intercepted this fusion of the black political revolution and the white cultural revolution jimi played berkeley but not oakland further reading books ward churchillchurchill ward and jim vander wall the cointelpro papers documents from the fbis secret wars against dissent in the united states pages south end press nd edition july isbn churchill ward and jim vander wall agents of repression the fbis secret wars against the black panther party and the american indian movement pages south end press nd edition july isbn carson clayborne and david gallen editors malcolm x the fbi file pages carroll amp graf publishers november isbn cunningham david theres something happening here the new left the klan and fbi counterintelligence pages university of california press march isbn cointelpro ed by cathy perkus pages new york vintage davis james kirkpatrick assault on the left chapters and pages praeger trade april isbn garrow david the fbi and martin luther king jr viking pr reprint edition pages february isbn yale university press revised amp expanded edition pages august isbn glick brian war at home covert action against us activists and what we can do about it boston south end press pages south end press st ed edition march isbn halperin morton berman jerry borosage robert marwick christine the lawless state the crimes of the us intelligence agencies pages copyright isbn blacstock nelson cointelpro the fbis secret war on political freedom pages copyright pathfinder press third edition with introduction by noam chomsky isbn us government reports us congress house committee on internal security hearings on domestic intelligence operations for internal security purposes rd cong d sess us congress house select committee on intelligence hearings on domestic intelligence programs th cong st sess us congress senate committee on government operations permanent subcommittee on investigations hearings on riots civil and criminal disorders th cong st sess st cong d sess us congress senate select committee to study governmental operations with respect to intelligence activities hearings ampmdash the national security agency and fourth amendment rights vol th cong st sess us congress senate select committee to study governmental operations with respect to intelligence activities hearings ampmdash federal bureau of investigation vol th cong st sess us congress senate select committee to study governmental operations with respect to intelligence activities final report ampmdash book ii intelligence activities and the rights of americans th cong d sess us congress senate select committee to study governmental operations with respect to intelligence activities final report ampmdash book iii supplementary detailed staff reports on intelligence activities and the rights of americans th cong d sess see also fred hampton viola liuzzo h bruce franklin thermcon operation mockingbird weather underground morris starsky song quotwake upquot by rage against the machine song quotno justice no peacequot by ausrotten song quotyour next bold movequot by ani difranco song quotwith friends like these who the fuck needs cointelproquot by propagandhi endnotes notechurch httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiiahtm httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiiahtm retrieved august notechurchcastigation httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiiahtm httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiiahtm retrieved august noteinfiltration as an example of infiltration of organizations bill wilkinson the leader of the invisible empire knights of the ku klux klan was an fbi informant notepsychologicalwarfare an example of cointelpros work in the media is a series of articles run in the san francisco examiner purporting to be interviews with radical marxist h bruce franklin a subsequent libel suit showed that rightwing columnist ed montgomery had cooperated closely with the fbi in writing the story and that j edgar hoover had signed off on the articles before publication httpwwwsfbgcomcoveranniversaryintrohtml httpwwwsfbgcomcoveranniversaryintrohtml retrieved august in another example the fbi also carried out a smear campaign against civil rights activist viola liuzzo after she was murdered by four ku klux klan members of whom one was a paid fbi informant httpwwwdetnewscommetrochtm httpwwwdetnewscommetrochtm retrieved august noteblackbag httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiifhtm httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiifhtm retrieved august noteextralegalforceandviolence brian glick war at home south end press an example of a burglary is discussed at httpwwwsfbgcomcoveranniversaryintrohtml httpwwwsfbgcomcoveranniversaryintrohtml retrieved august an example of involvement in violent acts is the murder of civil rights activist viola liuzzo by four klansmen of whom one was fbi informant gary rowe the church committee also found that quotwhile performing duties paid for by the government rowe had beaten people severely had boarded buses and kicked people had gone into restaurants and beaten them blacks with blackjacks chains pistolsquot httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiahtm httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiahtm retrieved august another example noted by the church committee was quotsending an anonymous letter to the leader of a chicago street gang described as violenceprone stating that the black panthers were supposed to have a hit out for you the letter was suggested because it may intensify animosity and cause the street gang leader to take retaliatory actionquot httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiahtm httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiahtm retrieved august external links documentary httpwwwdemocracynoworgarticleplsidampmodethreadamptid quotme and my shadowquot a history of the fbis covert operations and cointelpro part minute real audio produced by adi gevins pacifica radio rebroadcast by democracy now wednesday june retrieved may httpwwwdemocracynoworgarticleplsidampmodethreadamptid quotme and my shadowquot a history of the fbis covert operations and cointelpro part minute real audio produced by adi gevins pacifica radio rebroadcast by democracy now thursday june retrieved may websites httpwwwoilempireuscointelprohtml cointelpro now httpwwwcointelorg paul wolfs cointelpro website a detailed reference site retrieved april httpwwwsonicnetdoretkissuesfallcointhtml cointelpro still lives by sista shiriki unganisha httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprocoinwcarhtm cointelpro the untold american story presented to un world conference against racism by the us congressional black caucus httpwwwjudibariorg the judi bari case cointelpro in the s retrieved april httpwwwwhatreallyhappenedcomranchopoliticscointelprocointelprohtml cointelpro the sabotage of legitimate dissent what really happened june httpwwwwhatreallyhappenedcomranchopoliticscointelprocoloringhtml fake black panther party coloring book distributed by the fbi us government reports final report of the select committee to study governmental operations with respect to intelligence activities united states senate th congress nd session april legislative day april aka quotchurch committee reportquot archived on httpwwwcointelorg cointelpro sources website transcription and html by paul wolf retrieved april intelligence activities and the rights of americans book ii i httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiahtm introduction and summary ii httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiibhtm the growth of domestic intelligence to iii httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportfindingshtm findings a httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiicahtm violating and ignoring the law b httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiicbhtm overbreadth of domestic intelligence activity c httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiicchtm excessive use of intrusive techniques d httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiicdhtm using covert action to disrupt and discredit domestic groups e httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiicehtm political abuse of intelligence information f httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiicfhtm inadequate controls on dissemination and retention g httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiicghtm deficiencies in control and accountability iv httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiidhtm conclusions and recommendations supplementary detailed staff reports book iii httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiiahtm cointelpro the fbis covert action programs against american citizens httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiibhtm dr martin luther king jr case study httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiichtm the fbis covert action program to destroy the black panther party httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiidhtm the use of informants in fbi intelligence investigations httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiiehtm warrantless fbi electronic surveillance httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiifhtm warrantless surreptitious entries fbi quotblack bagquot breakins and microphone installations httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiightm the development of fbi domestic intelligence investigations httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiihhtm domestic cia and fbi mail opening httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiiihtm cia intelligence collection about americans chaos program and the office of security httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiijhtm national security agency surveillance affecting americans httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiikhtm improper surveillance of private citizens by the military httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiilhtm the internal revenue service an intelligence resource and collector httpwwwicdccompaulwolfcointelprochurchfinalreportiiimhtm national security civil liberties and the collection of intelligence a report on the huston plan categorycia operations categoryhistory of anticommunism in the united states categoryhistory of civil rights in the united states categorylaw enforcement in the united states categorypropaganda decointelpro svcointelpro kocointelprotext revision page page titlecruise missiletitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernameorphanbotusername idid contributor commentremoving image with no copyright information such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any timecomment text xmlspacepreserveimagetomahawkcruisemissilejpgthumbpxa tomahawk cruise missile a cruise missile is a guided missileguided missile which uses a lifting wing and most often a jet propulsion system to allow sustained flight cruise missiles are in essence unmanned aircraft they are generally designed to carry a large conventional or nuclear weaponnuclear warhead many hundreds of miles with excellent accuracy modern cruise missiles normally travel at high subsonic speeds are selfnavigating and fly low in order to avoid radar detection concise history the first cruise missile developed was the kettering bug developed in for use in world war i this used a biplane configuration and flew in a straight line for a predetermined time at which point the wings were detached and the fuselage containing the warhead fell to the ground it was not used offensively as world war i ended before it was deployed cruise missiles were first employed by nazi germany during world war ii introduced in the v flying bombv was the first weapon to use the classic cruise missile layout of a bomblike fuselage with short wings and a dorsally mounted engine along with a simple inertial guidance system the v was propelled by a crude pulse jet enginepulsejet engine the sound of which gave the v its nickname of quotbuzz bombquot however the v did not have the level of accuracy of a modern tactical cruise missile the v and similar early weapons are often referred to as flying bombs japan in an effort to gain a tactical advantage against the allied forces resorted to kamikaze aircraft such as the purposebuilt ohka another early predecessor to the superaccurate cruise missiles of today imagealcmcruisemissilejpgthumbnailleftalcm in museum during the cold war both the united states and the soviet union experimented further with the concept deploying early cruise missiles from submarines and aircraft this was due to the technical difficulties involved in the development of accurate submarine launched ballistic missiles the main outcome of the project in the us was the regulus missile based upon the v the soviet union was especially fond of large cruise missiles the united states had a program to develop a nuclearpowered cruise missile project pluto although the concept was proven sound none were ever testlaunched while ballistic missiles were the weapons of choice for land targets heavy nuclear and conventional tipped cruise missiles were seen by the ussr as a primary weapon to destroy us carrier battle groups large submarines eg echo class submarineecho and oscar class submarineoscar classes were developed to carry these weapons and shadow us battle groups at sea and large bombers eg tupolev tumbackfire tupolev tubear and tupolev tublackjack models were equipped with the weapons in their air launched cruise missile alcm configuration design missions the most common mission is to attack relatively high value targets such as ships command bunkers bridges and dams modern guidance system permit precise attacks cruise missiles are wellsuited to assassination but most organizations with the means to fund development avoid assassination as a policy warhead most cruise missiles carry about kg of explosives because most were designed to sink ships and destroy bunkers see nuclear weapon explosives aerodynamics see aircraft aerodynamics wing engine see jet engine ramjet guidance the lowest cost system in wide use uses a radar altimeter barometric altimeter and clock to navigate a digital strip map some systems may now use satellite navigation or inertial guidance but these are substantially more expensive and gps systems are only slightly more accurate than a mapbased system main cruise missile versions conventionally armed lt image with unknown copyright status removed imagebrahmosjpgthumbrightpxbrahmos supersonic cruise missiles travel at the speed of mach and have a range of km gtas of the bgm tomahawk missile model has become a significant part of the us naval arsenal it gives ships and submarines an extremely accurate longrange conventional land attack weapon each costs about usd the united states air forceus air force deploys an air launched cruise missile the agm it can be launched from bombers like the b stratofortress both the tomahawk and the agm were used extensively during operation desert storm the united kingdombritish royal navy rn also operates cruise missiles specifically the tomahawk used by the rns nuclear submarine fleet conventional warhead versions were first fired in combat by the rn in during the kosovo war both tomahawk as agm and alcm agm were originally developed as competing designs for the usaf alcm nuclear tipped cruise missile competition the usaf adopted the agm for its bomber fleet while agm was adapted to launch from trucks and ships and adopted by the usaf and navy the truck launched versions were later destroyed under the bilateral inf intermediate range nuclear forces treaty with the ussr which also saw the end of the pershing ii and ss intermediate range ballistic missiles the uk and france operate the storm shadow sectionstub nuclear warhead versions the us has agm advanced cruise missiles acms with a w nuclear warhead for b stratofortress bh external carriage also there are ca sea launched cruise missiles with the same nuclear warhead they all remain in storage see also the united states and weapons of mass destruction intermediaterange nuclear forces treaty woensdrecht sectionstub trivia a quotdiyquot cruise missile there was also a project by a new zealander named bruce simpson to design and test fly a homebuilt cruise missile it was funded by private investors and it was planned to be built for under which is remarkably cheaper than the approximate million usd used to build the tomahawk simpson intended to use readily available components to build a basic missile system his extensive experience in the building of radio controlled model aircraft would be employed in airframe and control surface design a commercially available gps unit linked to a standard programmable logic controllerplc unit running custom developed software would be used for guidance and control propulsion would come from a pulse jet engine of his own design payload was intended to be in the region of ampndash kilograms not enough to do significant damage if loaded with conventional explosives but sufficient to be used as a dispersal system for biologicalchemical agents in late however simpson ran into tax difficulties and ended the project he later claimed that his tax problems were the result of a government attempt to shut him down see also commonscruise missile precision guided munition buzz bomb armored box launcher vertical launch system sunburn missile external links httpwwwfasorgnukeintrocmindexhtml an introduction to cruise missiles ampndash from the website of the federation of american scientists fas httpwwwaardvarkconzpjetcruiseshtml the diy cruise missile httpwwwactivistmagazinecom act for disarmament httpwwwbrahmoscom brahmos a supersonic indorussian cruise missile missile types airlistbox categorycruise missiles categorymissile types categoryunmanned vehicles demarschflugkrper esmisil de crucero fa itmissile da crociera he mspeluru berpandu krus nlkruisraket ja ru firisteilyohjus svkryssningsrobottext revision page page titlecretetitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamestevepetersonusername idid contributor comment personalities comment text xmlspacepreserveotheruses infobox peri gr name crete namelocal imagemap greececretepng prefec chania prefecturechanialtbrgtheraklion prefectureheraklionltbrgtlasithiltbrgtrethymno prefecturerethymno capital heraklion population populationasof popdens area website httpwwwcreteregiongr wwwcreteregiongr crete list of traditional greek place namesgreek kriti turkish languageturkish girit is the largest of the greecegreek islands and the fifth largest in the mediterranean sea it is located at approximately coor dne tourist attractions in crete include archeological sites at knossos phaistos gortys and many other places the venetian castle in rethymno the samaria gorge and many other minor gorges agia irini aradena etc imagecrete location mappngrightthumbpxgreece and crete crete was the location of the minoan civilization ca th century bceampndashs bce bce one of the first civilizations in europe history for main article see history of crete geography imagecrete nasajpgthumbpxsatellite image of crete nasa crete is one of the regions of greece it is the biggest island in greece and the second biggest after cyprus of the east mediterranean crete has an elongated shape km from west to east and at its widest km the island is narrower at certain points such as in the region close to ierapetra where it has a width of only km it covers an area of kmampsup and a coastline km long to the north crete borders with the sea of crete greek to the south it is bordered by the libyan sea greek to the west the myrtoon sea to the east the karpathion sea its population is people as of the island is km long and varies in width from km measured from the dion cape to the lithinon cape to only km at the isthmus of ierapetra in eastern crete the coast is deeply indented giving crete over km of shoreline crete lies approximately km south of the greek mainland the island is extremely mountainous and is defined by a high mountain range crossing it from west to east formed by three different groups of mountains these are the white mountains or lefka ori up to m high the idi range psiloritis coor dne m the dikti mountains up to m high these mountains gifted crete with fertile plateaus like lasithi omalos and nidha caves like diktaion and idaion cave and gorges like the famous gorge of samaria climate crete straddles two climatic zones the mediterranean and the north african mainly falling within the former as such the climate in crete is primarily temperate the atmosphere can be quite humid depending on the proximity to the sea the winter is fairly mild snow fall is practically unknown to the plains but quite frequent in the mountains during summer average temperatures are in the high slow s celsius the exception can be the south coast including the messara plain and asterousia mountains which fall in the north african climatic zone and thus enjoys significantly more sunny days and high temperatures during the summer probably the best time to visit crete is spring and fall economy the economy of crete which was mainly based on farming started changing visibly during the s while there is still an emphasis on farming and stock breeding due to the climate and the terrain of the island there is a drop in manufacturing and a big increase on the services industry mainly tourism related all three sectors of the cretian economy agriculture processingpackaging services are directly connected and interdependent crete has an average per capita income which is close to of the greek average unemployment is at approximately half of that of greece the island has three significant airports heraklion international airport quotnikos kazantzakisquotnikos kazantzakis at heraklion the military airport daskalogiannis at chania and a new public airport in sitia personalities el greco spanish languagemedieval castilian nickname meaning quotthe greecegreekquot by which domnikos theotokpoulos is best known born fodele heraklion and died in april toledo spain a worldfamous painter sculpturesculptor and architect eleftherios venizelos politician primeminister of the hellenic republic epimenides of knossos th century bc a famous prophetseer and philosopherpoetrypoet associated with the epimenides paradox who is said to have fallen asleep for fiftyseven years in a cretian cave sacred to zeus after which he reportedly awoke with the gift of prophecy mikis theodorakis born music composerzorba the greek nikos kazantzakis worldfamous writer novelist poet konstantinos mitsotakis born politician primeminister of the hellenic republic vitsentzos kornaros greek or vincenzo cornaro sitia candia alternate spellings vicenzo vitzentzos a cretian poet of the greek renaissance who wrote the romantic epic poem erotokritos he was the leading figure of the cretian renaissance cities cretes principal cities are heraklion iraklion or candia inhabitants chania hani inhabitants rethymno inhabitants ierapetra inhabitants agios nikolaos creteagios nikolaos inhabitants sitia inhabitants political organization the island of crete is a peripheries of greeceperiphery of greece consisting of four prefectures of greeceprefectures greek languagegreek chania prefecturechania heraklion prefectureheraklion lasithi rethymno prefecturerethymno for amateur radio purposes it is considered to be a separate quotentityquot prefix sv tourism crete is one of the most popular holiday destinations in greece fifteen percent of all arrivals in greece come through the city of iraklion port and airport while charter flights to iraklion were last year of the total of charter flights in greece in sum more than two million tourists visited crete last year this increase in tourism is reflected on the number of hotel beds which increased in crete by from to while in the rest of greece the increase was today the tourism infrastructure in crete caters to all tastes there is accommodation of every possible category from large luxury hotels with all the facilities swimming pools sports and recreation facilities etc to smaller family owned apartments to camping facilities visitors can arrive at the island through two international airports in iraklion and hania or by boat to the ports of iraklion hania rethimno and agios nikolaos see also history of crete music of crete former countries in europe after minoan civilization external links commonscategorycrete httpwwwcretanmusicgr traditional cretian music greek httpwwwuchgr university of crete httpwwwtucgr technical university of crete httpwwwteicretegr technological educational institute of crete peripheries of greece categorycrete categoryislands of greece categoryperipheries of greece categoryformer countries in europe categorynuts statistical regions of europe ar bg bskreta cacreta cskrta dakreta dekreta etkreeta el escreta frcrte itcreta he idcrete lacreta ltkreta nlkreta ja nokreta plkreta ptcreta rocreta ru slkreta sr fikreeta svkreta trgirit zhtext revision page page titlecycladestitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor ipip contributor comment external links link to capn barefootcomment text xmlspacepreserveinfobox pref gr name cyclades namelocal imagemap greececycladespng periph south aegean capital ermoupoli population populationasof poprank th popdens popdensrank th area arearank rdh postalcode x xx areacode x licence ampepsilonampmu provinces municip commun iso gr website the cyclades from the greek languagegreek ampampampampampampampamp quotcircularquot modern greek kykldes see also list of traditional greek place names form an island group southeast of the mainland of greece they are a part of the greek islandsvast number of islands which constitute the greek archipelago in the aegean sea the name was originally used to indicate those islands that formed a rough circle around the sacred island of delos map the cyclades are comprised of around islands with the major ones being amorgos anafi androsndros antiparos delos ios kea islandka kimolos kynthos milosmlos mykonos naxos greecenxos parospros pholegandros serifos sifnos sikinos sirossros tinostnos and santorinisantorini thira ermoupolis on sros is the chief town and administrative center of the group the islands are peaks of a submerged mountainous terrain with the exception of two volcanovolcanic islands melos and santorini thera the climate is generally dry and mild but with the exception of naxos the soil is not very fertile agricultural produce includes wine fruit wheat olive oil and tobacco cooler temperatures are in higher elevations and mainly do not receive wintry weather in transportation the cyclades is the only prefecture in greece that is not linked with a statemaintained highway or a highway number all of its roads in the island complex are secondary or provincial history the significant late neolithic and early bronze age cycladic culture is best known for its schematic flat female idols carved out of the islands pure white marble centuries before the great middle bronze age quotminoan civilizationminoanquot culture arose in crete to the south these figures have been looted from burials to satisfy a thriving cycladic antiquities market since the early th century a distinctive neolithic culture amalgamating anatolian and mainland greek elements arose in the western aegean before bce based on emmer wheat and wildtype barley sheep and goats pigs and tuna that were apparently speared from small boats rutter excavated sites include saliagos and kephala on keos with signs of copperworking each of the small cycladic islands could support no more than a few thousand people though late cycladic boat models show that fifty oarsmen could be assembled from the scattered communities rutter and when the highly organized palaceculture of crete arose the islands faded into insignificance with the exception of delos which retained its archaic reputation as a sanctuary through the period of classical greek civilization archaeology the first archaeological excavations of the s were followed by systematic work by the british school at athens and by christos tsountas who investigated burial sites on several islands in and coined the term quotcycladic civilizationquot interest lagged then picked up in the midth century as collectors competed for the modernlooking figures that seemed so similar to sculpture by jean arp or constantin brancusi sites were looted and a brisk trade in forgeries arose the context for many of these cycladic figurines has thus been mostly destroyed their meaning may never be completely understood another intriguing and mysterious object is that of the cycladic frying pans more accurate archaeology has revealed the broad outlines of a farming and seafaring culture that had immigrated from asia minor ca th millennium bce bce early cycladic culture evolved in three phases between ca rd century bce th century bce bce when it was increasingly swamped in the rising influence of minoan crete the culture of mainland greece contemporary with cycladic culture is termed helladic culuturehelladic in recent decades the cyclades islands have become extremely popular with european and other tourists and as a result there have been problems with erosion pollution and water shortages lt transportation greece interstate gr communications list of radio stations in greeceradio list of greek language television channelstelevision famous inhabitants of the lesbos prefecture islands archaeological sitesgt area codes greece dialing code syros including kythnos serifos and syros islands greece dialing code andros greece dialing code tinos greece dialing code paros and sifnos islands greece dialing code amorgos and naxos greecenaxos islands greece dialing code folegandros ios santorini and sikinos islands greece dialing code kimolos and milos greece dialing code kea island greece dialing code mykonos municipalities and communities borderquotquot cellpaddingquotquot cellspacingquotquot bgcolorquotefefefquot municipality ypes code seat postal code area code amorgos amorgos andros andros ano syros ano syros drymalia chalkio naxos greecechalkio ermoupoli ermoupoli exomvourga xinara naxou ios ios kea kea islandkea korthio ormos korthiou kythnos kythnos milos milos mykonos mykonos naxos naxos paros paros poseidonia episkopi posidonias serifos serifos sifnos sifnos thira thira tinos tinos ydrousa gavrio bgcolorquotefefefquot community ypes code seat postal code area code anafi anafi antiparos antiparos donoussa donoussa folegandros folegandros heraklia heraklia cyclades greeceheraklia kimolos kimolos koufonissa koufonissa oia oia panormos panormos schoinoussa schoinoussa sikinos sikinos see also list of settlements in the cyclades prefecture further reading j a macgillivray and r l n barber editors the prehistoric cyclades edinburgh r l n barber the cyclades in the bronze age iowa city external links httpprojectsxdartmoutheduclassicshistorybronzeageindexhtml jeremy b rutter quotthe prehistoric archaeology of the aegeanquot especially lessons and chronology history bibliography httpwwwgeocitiescomhotspringsgreekgdehtml captain barefoots naturist guide to the greek islands this website has extensive accurate uptodate information on the beaches in the cyclades especially where clothing optional sunbathing is commonly practiced categorythe cyclades categoryarchipelagoes categoryislands of greece categoryprefectures of greece cacclades cskyklady dakykladerne dekykladen etkklaadid el esccladas frcyclades glccladas itcicladi lacycladae nlcycladen plcyklady ptcclades ru simplecyclades skkyklady fikykladit svkykladernatext revision page page titlecasimir iv jagiellotitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernameappleseedusername idid contributor text xmlspacepreserveredirect kazimierz iv jagiellontext revision page page titlecomputer visiontitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor ipconversion scriptip contributor minor commentautomated conversioncomment text xmlspacepreserveredirect computer vision text revision page page titlecomputer visiontitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamekynusername idid contributor comment further reading another bookcomment text xmlspacepreservecomputer vision is the study and application of methods which allow computers to quotunderstandquot image content or content of multidimensional data in general the term quotunderstandquot means here that specific information is being extracted from the image data for a specific purpose either for presenting it to a human operator e g if cancerous cells have been detected in a microscopy image or for controlling some process e g an industry robot or an autonomous vehicle the image data that is fed into a computer vision system is often a digital grayscale or colour image but can also be in the form of two or more such images e g from a stereo camera pair a video sequence or a d volume e g from a tomography device in most practical computer vision applications the computers are preprogrammed to solve a particular task but methods based on learning are now becoming increasingly common computer vision can also be described as the complement but not necessary the opposite of biological vision in biological vision and visual perception real visual systems of humans and various animals are studied resulting in models of how these systems are implemented in terms of neural processing at various levels computer vision on the other hand studies and describes technical system which are implemented in software or hardware in computercomputers or in dspdigital signal processors there is some interdisciplinary work between biological and computer vision but in general the field of computer vision studies processing of visual data as a purely technical problem state of the art imagecvoverviewjpgframerelation between computer vision and various other fields the field of computer vision can be characterized as immature and diverse even though earlier work exists it was not until the late s that a more focused study of the field started when computers could manage the processing of large data sets such as images however these studies usually originated from various other fields and consequently there is no standard formulation of the quotcomputer vision problemquot also and to an even larger extent there is no standard formulation of how computer vision problems should be solved instead there exists an abundance of methods for solving various welldefined computer vision tasks where the methods often are very task specific and seldom can be generalized over a wide range of applications many of the methods and applications are still in the state of basic research but more and more methods have found their way into commercial products where they often constitute a part of a larger system which can solve complex tasks eg in the area of medical images or quality control and measurements in industrial processes computer vision is by some seen as a subfield of artificial intelligence where image data is being fed into a system as an alternative to text based input for controlling the behaviour of a system some of the learning methods which are used in computer vision are based on learning techniques developed within artificial intelligence since a camera can be seen as a light sensor there are various methods in computer vision based on correspondences between a physical phenomenon related to light and images of that phenomenon for example it is possible to extract information about motion in fluids and about waves by analyzing images of these phenomena also a subfield within computer vision deals with the physical process which given a scene of objects light sources and camera lenses forms the image in a camera consequently computer vision can also be seen as an extension of physics a third field which plays an important role is neurobiology specifically the study of the biological vision system over the last century there has been an extensive study of eyes neurons and the brain structures devoted to processing of visual stimuli in both humans and various animals this has led to a coarse yet complicated description of how quotrealquot vision systems operate in order to solve certain vision related tasks these results have led to a subfield within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic the processing and behaviour of biological systems at different levels of complexity also some of the learningbased methods developed within computer vision have their background in biology yet another field related to computer vision is signal processing many existing methods for processing of onevariable signals typically temporal signals can be extended in a natural way to processing of twovariable signals or multivariable signals in computer vision however because of the specific nature of images there are many methods developed within computer vision which have no counterpart in the processing of onevariable signals a distinct character of these methods is the fact that they are nonlinear which together with the multidimensionality of the signal defines a subfield in signal processing as a part of computer vision beside the above mentioned views on computer vision many of the related research topics can also be studied from a purely mathematical point of view for example many methods in computer vision are based on statistics optimization mathematicsoptimization or geometry finally a significant part of the field is devoted to the implementation aspect of computer vision how existing methods can be realized in various combinations of software and hardware or how these methods can be modified in order to gain processing speed without losing too much performance computer vision and digital image processing are related fields the distinction between the two is not very clear eg computer vision uses many methods which traditionally belong to image processing one formal distinction would be to say that image processing deals with transforming images producing one image from another or with producing lowlevel information about an image such as edges or lines neither of these tasks provide or require an interpretation about what the image contains in terms of objects or events computer vision on the other hand uses models and assumptions about the real world depicted in the images to extract information which eg can be used to control actions on objects in a scene in more advanced systems these models can be learned rather than programmed examples of applications for computer vision another way to describe computer vision is in terms of applications areas one of the most prominent application fields is medical computer vision or medical image processing this area is characterized by the extraction of information from image data for the purpose of making a medical diagnosis of a patient typically image data is in the form of microscopymicroscopy images xrayxray images angiographyangiography images ultrasonographyultrasonic images and tomographytomography images an example of information which can be extracted from such image data is detection of tumourtumours arteriosclerosis or other malign changes it can also be measurements of organ dimensions blood flow etc this application area also supports medical research by providing new information eg about the structure of the brain or about the quality of medical treatments a second application area in computer vision is in industry here information is extracted for the purpose of supporting a manufacturing process one example is quality control where details or final products are being automatically inspected in order to find defects another example is measurement of position and orientation of details to be picked up by a robot arm see the article on machine visionmachine vision for more details on this area military applications are probably one of the largest areas for computer vision even though only a small part of this work is open to the public the obvious examples are detection of enemy soldiers or vehicles and guidance of missiles to a designated target more advanced systems for missile guidance send the missile to an area rather than a specific target and target selection is made when the missile reaches the area based on locally acquired image data modern military concepts such as quotbattlefield awarenessquot imply that various sensors including image sensors provide a rich set of information about a combat scene which can be used to support strategic decisions in this case automatic processing of the data is used to reduce complexity and to fuse information from multiple sensors to increase reliability one of the newer application areas is autonomous vehicles which ranges from submersibles landbased vehicles small robots with wheels cars or trucks to aerial vehicles an unmanned aerial vehicle is often denoted uav the level of autonomy ranges from fully autonomous unmanned vehicles to vehicles where computer vision based systems support a driver or a pilot in various situations fully autonomous vehicles typically use computer vision for navigation i e for knowing where it is or for producing a map of its environment simultaneous localization and mappingslam and for detecting obstacles it can also be used for detecting certain task specific events e g a uav looking for forest fires examples of supporting system are obstacle warning systems in cars and systems for autonomous landing of aircraft several car manufactures have demonstrated system for autonomous driving of cars but this technology has still not reached a level where it can be put on the market there are ample examples of military autonomous vehicles ranging from advanced missiles to uavs for recon missions or missile guidance space exploration is already being made with autonomous vehicles using computer vision e g nasas mars exploration rover typical tasks of computer vision object recognition detecting the presence of known objects or living beings in an image possibly together with estimating the pose computer visionpose of these objects examples searching in digital images for specific content contentbased image retrieval recognizing human faces and their location in images estimation of the threedimensional pose computer visionpose of humans and their limbs detection of objects which are passing through a manufacturing process eg on a conveyor belt and estimation of their pose computer visionpose so that a robot arm can pick up the objects from the belt optical character recognition ocr optical character recognitionoptical character recognition takes pictures of printed or handwritten text and converts it into computer readable text such as asciiascii or unicode in the past images were acquired with a image scannercomputer scanner however in more recent times some software can also read text from pictures taken with a digital camera tracking video trackingtracking known objects through an image sequence examples tracking a single person walking through a shopping center tracking of vehicles moving along a road scene interpretation creating a computer modelmodel from an imagevideo examples creating a computer modelmodel of the surrounding terrain from images which are being taken by a robotmounted camera anticipating the pattern of the image to determine size and density to estimate the volume using tomography like device the cloud recognition is one the government project using this method egomotion determining the motion of the camera itself examples given two images of a scene determine the d rigid motion of the camera between the two views computer vision systems a typical computer vision system can be divided in the following subsystems image acquisition the image or videoimage sequence is acquired with an imaging system cameraradarlidartomographytomography system often the imaging system has to be calibrationcalibrated before being used preprocessing in the preprocessing step the image is being treated with quotlowlevelquotoperations the aim of this step is to do noise reduction on the image ie to dissociate the signal information theorysignal from the noise and to reduce the overall amount of data this is typically being done by employing different digital image processingdigitalimage processing methods such as subsampling signal processingsampling the image applying digital filterdigital filters convolutionconvolutions computing a scale space representation correlations or lsilinear shift invariant filters sobelsobel operator computing the x and ygradientgradient possibly also the timegradient image segmentsegmenting the image pixelwise thresholdthresholding performing an eigentransformeigentransform on the image fourier transform doing motion estimationmotion estimation for local regions of the image also known as optical flow estimation estimating disparitybraindisparity in stereo photographystereo images multiresolution analysis feature extraction the aim of feature extraction is to further reduce the data to a set of features which ought to be invariant to disturbances such as lightinglighting conditions camera position noise and distortion examples of feature extraction are performing edge detection or estimation of orientation computer visionlocal orientation extracting corner detectioncorner features detecting blob detectionblob features extracting httpwwwricmueduprojectsprojecthtml spin images from depth maps extracting geon psychologygeons or other threedimensional primitives such as superquadrics acquiring contourcontour lines and maybe curvaturecurvature zero crossings generating features with the scaleinvariant feature transform registration the aim of the image registrationregistration step is to establish correspondence mathematicscorrespondence between the features in the acquired set and the features of known objects in a modeldatabase andor the features of the preceding image the registration step has to bring up a final hypothesis to name a few methods least squaresleast squares estimation hough transform in many variations geometric hashing particle filterparticle filtering ransacrandom sample consensus related fields advanced systems are often borrowing from many different fields like pattern recognition statistical learning projective geometry image processing graph theory and other cognitive computer vision is strongly related to cognitive psychology and biological computation a university video communication on modelbased computer vision joseph mundy in a httpwwwarchiveorgdetailsjosephmu university video communication on modelbased computer vision quotwhat do students need to learn to be prepared to meet the challengesquot ltigtquoti would like to comment on the necessary courses a student should take to really be prepared to carry out research in modelbased vision as we can see the geometry of perspective projectionimage projection and the mathematics of affine transformationtransformation is a very key element in studying this field but there are many other issues the student has to be prepared for if we are going to talk about image segmentsegmenting images and getting good geometric clues we have to understand the relationship between the intensity of image data and its underlying geometry and this would lead the student into such areas as optics illumination theory theory of shadows and the like and also the mathematics underlying this kind of computations would of course require signal processing theory fourier transform theory and the like and in dealing with algebraic surfaces such as this curved surfaces as we talked about here courses in algebraic geometry and higher pure forms of algebra will prove to be necessary in order to make any kind of progress in research to handle curved surfaces so i guess the bottom line of what im saying is math courses particularly those associated with geometric aspects will be key in all of thisquotltigt applications in the related fields machine vision and medical imaging systems using computer vision techniques are sold in markets worth billions of us dollars per year one interesting application of computer vision commonly used in the creation of visual effects for cinema and broadcast is camera tracking or matchmoving computer vision also finds its applications in medicine military industry security and surveillance quality inspection robotics automotive industry and many other fields see also borderquotquot cellpaddingquotquot computer vision subcategories related fields valignquottopquot categoryapplications in computer visionapplications in computer vision categorycommercial systems for computer visioncommercial systems for computer vision categorypeople in computer visionpeople in computer vision categorysoftware for computer visionsoftware for computer vision affective computing artificial intelligence computer graphics digital image processing image processing machine learning machine vision medical imaging morphological image processing list of important publications in computer sciencecomputer visionimportant publications in computer vision further reading cite book authorolivier faugeras titlethreedimensional computer vision a geometric viewpoint publishermit press year idisbn cite book authordavid a forsyth and jean ponce titlecomputer vision a modern approach publisherprentice hall year idisbn cite book authorgsta h granlund and hans knutsson titlesignal processing for computer vision publisherkluwer academic publisher year idisbn cite book authorrichard hartely and andrew zisserman titlemultiple view geometry in computer vision publishercambridge university press year idisbn cite book authorberthold klaus paul horn titlerobot vision publishermit press year idisbn cite book authorbernd jhne and horst hauecker titlecomputer vision and applications a guide for sudents and practitioners publisheracademic press year idisbn cite book authorbernd jhne titledigital image processing publisherspringer year idisbn cite book authortim morris titlecomputer vision and image processing publisherpalgrave macmillan year idisbn cite book authorlinda g shapiro and george c stockman titlecomputer vision publisherprentice hall year idisbn cite book authormilan sonka vaclav hlavac and roger boyle titleimage processing analysis and machine vision publisherpws publishing year idisbn x external links general resources wikicitiescomputervisioncomputer vision httpwwwcscmueducilvisionhtml the computer vision homepage httpirisusceduvisionnotesbibliographycontentshtml keith prices annotated computer vision bibliography computer vision laboratories httpwwwvisioneeethzch eth zrich computer vision laboratory httpvisionengshuacukmediawiki mmvl mediawiki httpdircwebkingacukdirc kingston universitys digital imaging research centre dirc httpwwwpsitorontoedu probilistic and statistical inference group university of toronto tutorials httphomepagesinfedacukrbfcvonline online compendium of computer vision httpwwwnetnamvnunescocoursecomputervisioncompfrmhtm tutorial to image processing httppalantirswarthmoreedumaxwellclassesefeflecturespdf introduction to computer vision kb pdf file papers httpwwwpacketccfilesmachperdsolidshtml machine perception of threedimensional solids the paper mentioned by joseph mundy in the video categoryartificial intelligence categorycomputer visioncomputer vision decomputer vision esvisin artificial fa frvision artificielle ja svdatorseende th zhtext revision page page titlecurrytitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor ipip contributor comment curries around the world comment text xmlspacepreserveotherusesthe dish imagechicken curryjpgrightpxthumban indian cuisineindian chicken curry a curry is any of a great variety of distinctively spiced dishes bestknown in indian cuisineindian and thai cuisine but curry has been adopted into all of the mainstream cuisines of the asiapacific area from pakistan in the west and even eventually to japan along with tea curry is one of the few dishes or drinks that is truly quotpanasianquot although its roots are from india sandeep bhateja punjabi the world famous curry chef from agra india is renowned for incorporating various roots into exotic curry dishes curries around the world the term curry derives from kari a tamil languagetamil word meaning sauce and referring to various kinds of dishes common in south india made with vegetablesvegetables or meat and usually eaten with rice the term is used more broadly especially in the western hemisphere to refer to almost any spiced saucebased dishes cooked in various south and southeast asian styles this imprecise umbrella term is largely a legacy of the british raj there is a common misconception that all curries are made from curry powder or that a certain meat or vegetable is curried in india the word curry is in fact rarely used most dishes involving lentils are called dahl or else are referred to by a name specific to the spices used in the preparation meat or vegetable dishes are likewise given specific names that indicate the method of cooking or the particular spices used there is however a particular north indian dish which is given the name curry this involves yoghurt ghee and besan see below tamil cuisine maintamil cuisine in tamil cuisine from which the word originated curry refers to any dry preparation involving meat or vegetables shallowfried with dry spices curries are named according to what type of food theyre made from and then adding the word curry eg potato curry bean curry chicken curry or goat curry tamil cuisinetamil cuisine from tamil nadu one of the oldest culinary heritages of the world is characterized by its aroma and flavor achieved by a blend and combination of spices including curry leavescurry leaves tamarind coriander ginger garlic chili pepperchili black pepperpepper cinnamon cloves cardamom cumin nutmeg coconut and even rosewater rice is an important constituent of tamil cuisine and there are a variety of rice preparations and food items of rice are available for all the meals of the day lentils too are consumed extensively as accompaniment of rice preparations as also in the form of independent food preparations of lentils vegetables and dairy products too are essential accompaniments traditionally vegetarian foods predominate the menu with a range of nonvegetarian dishes including sweet water fish and seafood cooked with traditional tamil spices and seasoning malayali cuisine mainkerala cuisine malayali curries of kerala typically use shredded coconut paste or coconut milk curry leaves and various spices keralas cuisine is linked in all its richness to the history geography and culture of the land most of the nonvegetarian dishes lean heavily on the spicy side kerala is know for its traditional sadyas a vegetarian meal served with bolied rice and a host of sidedishes the sadya is perfectly complemented with the payasam a sweet dessert native to kerala the sadya is as per custom served on a banana leaf punjabi cuisine mainpunjabi cuisine punjabi cuisine from the punjab region is mainly based upon wheat masalas spice pure desi ghee with liberal amounts of butter and cream foodcream though wheat varieties form their staple food punjabis do cook rice on special occasions during winter a delicacy rao ki kheer is cooked using rice rice is cooked for a long time in sugar cane juice within the state itself there are different preferences people in the area of amritsar prefer stuffed parathas and milk products in fact the area is well known for quality of its milk products there are certain dishes which are exclusive to punjab such as maha di dal and saron da saag sarson ka saag other indian cuisine mainindian cuisine in other varieties of indian cuisine curry is a sauce sometimes considered a soup made by stirring yoghurt into a roux of ghee a type of clarified butter and besan chick pea flour the spices added vary but usually include turmeric and black mustard seed pakistani cuisine maincuisine of pakistan pakistani cuisine is to some extent identical to north indian cuisine especially in the regions of punjab regionpunjab and sindh however due to its location in the northwest of the indian subcontinent there is a lot of regional variation for example the western portions of pakistan have cuisine that is more similar with that of afghanistan and iran much of the food is referred to as mughlai cuisine especially in the east and varies from its neighbors in that it is spicier than the cuisine in other parts of the middle east and less spicy than that of india one could term it a unique blend of indoiranian but more realistically it is perhaps best described as a nation with many different types of foods the east and to some extent the north west frontier province being almost identical to north indian punjabi cuisine and the west being more similar to the cuisine of iran often both interlap especially in mughlai cuisine the most prominent pakistani cuisine though is the mughalai cuisine which is also prominent throughout northern india bangladeshi cuisine maincuisine of bangladesh bangladeshi cuisine has considerable regional variations as would be expected a staple across the country however is rice and dhal sometimes written as dal as a large percentage of the land over on some occasions can be under water either intentionally because of farming practices or due to severe climatological topographical or geographical conditions not surprisingly fish features as the major source of protein in the bangladeshi diet the staples of bangladeshi cuisine are rice atta flouratta a special type of whole wheat flour and at least five dozen varieties of pulses the most important of which are chana bengal gramand these are used in different forms may be whole or after processing them in a mill that removes the skineg dhuli moong or dhuli uradsome times mixed with rice and excellent for digestion food called khichri similar to the chick pea but smaller and more flavorful toor pigeon pea or red gram urad black gram and mung beanmung green gram pulses are used almost exclusively in the form of dal except chana which is often cooked whole for breakfast and is processed into flour besan bangladeshi cuisine can generally be broken down into two distinct regional styles dhaka and sylheti the sylheti style has been popularized in the uk in the second half of the th century where there was a spurt in the development of angloindian cuisine as families from the sylhet divisionsylhet division of bangladesh migrated to london to look for work the widely popular british curry dish chicken tikka masala was also produced by bangladeshi immigrants from sylhet seebengali cuisine british cuisine see alsobritish cuisine imagechickentikkajalfrezijpgleftthumbpxchicken tikka jalfrezi pilau rice and a soothing cucumber rhaita served up at the aladin restaurant brick lane london ltwarning this dish contains fresh green chilis but the yogurt in the rhaita softens the bitegt a typical british hybrid this is a southern indian dish cooked in a bangladeshi restaurant and adapted to british multiethnic tastes november in british cuisine the word curry once came solely to denote a saucebased dish flavoured with curry powder or a paste variant made with the latter and oils however the resurgence of interest in good food preparation in the uk in recent years has led to much more use of fresh spices such as ginger and garlic and preparation of an initial masala from freshly ground dried spices though pastes and powders are still frequently used when convenience is paramount it should be noted that the debasement of the british curry as a dish solely made with curry powder which before about the s only meant one thing a yellow powder consisting mostly of ground turmeric and chile powder used to create dishes such as coronation chicken is a thcentury phenomenon as was the ubiquitous inclusion offor some forgotten reasonsultanas in every socalled curry but many excellent curry recipes are contained in thcentury cookbooks such as those of mrs beeton although it is unlikely thatunlike latterday curriesthese were consumed by the british working class of the time as a side note the famous curry sauce often associated with the city of liverpool that is often served warm as a condiment with other dishes such as chips was actually popularised by chinese takeaways not indian restaurants and relies heavily on ground ginger for its flavouring british curries are often served in indian restaurants until the early s more than three quarters of indian restaurants in britain were identified as being owned and run by those of pakistanpakistani origin most of these were run by migrants from east pakistan which became bangladesh in until as many as of curry restaurants in the uk were bangladeshi restaurants httpwwwcurryhousecouksceneethnshowhtm but in this figure declined to just over httpwwwbbccoukworldservicespecialsfoodpageshtml as of the dominance of bangladeshi restaurants is generally declining in some parts of london and the further north one travels the majority in bradford and manchester being pakistani kashmirkashmiri and indianorth indian in glasgow there are more restaurants of punjab regionpunjabi origin than any other httpwwwmenumagazinecoukbookrestauranthistoryhtml whatever the ethnic origin of a restaurants ownership the menu will nearly always be influenced by the wider indian subcontinent sometimes including nepalese dishes and sometimes cuisines from further afield such as cuisine of iranpersian dishes there have also been british influences two of the most familiar dishes served in british restaurants chicken tikka masala and balti foodbalti which is a curry designed to be eaten with a large naan were invented in the uk by bangladeshi chefs some british variations on indian food are now being exported from the uk to india britishstyle curry restaurants are also popular in australia and new zealand in a relatively short space of time curry has become an integral part of british cuisine so much so that since the late s chicken tikka masala has been commonly referred to as the quotbritish national dishquot it is now available albeit in frozen microwavable form on intercity british railintercity rail trains as a flavour for crisps and even as a pizza topping the traditional british curry house although there have been indian restaurants in britain for many years and in areas with large asian populations these have remained highly authentic the typical highstreet quotcurry housequot until recently served a curious and almost ritualised cuisine which bore little resemblance to any real asian dishes this cuisine was characterised by the use of a common base for all the sauces to which spices are added when individual dishes are prepared although the names may be similar to traditional dishes the recipes generally are not kormakurma mild yellow in colour with almond and coconut powder curry medium gravylike sauce rogan josh from quotgoshtquot medium with tomatoes bhuna medium thick sauce some vegetables dhansak mediumhot with lentils and pineapple madras fairly hot curry red in colour and with heavy use of chilli powder pathia generally similar to a madras lemon juice and tomato puree vindaloo a complete corruption of the goan vindalho instead of a delightful preserved pork in vinegar with some spicing to add taste this is the classic quothotquot restaurant curry the name has been corrupted such that the aloo has been taken to mean potato so a lump of boiled potato can usually be found at the bottom of a vindaloo phaal extremely hot these sauces are typically served with quotlambquot usually mutton prawns or chicken vegetable versions are somewhat cheaper and chicken tikka or king prawn versions more expensive the tandoor was introduced into britain in the s and tandoori and tikka chicken became popular dishes chicken tikka masala was said to have been invented in glasgow when a customer demanded a sauce with a too dry tikka although it is also seen as a variant on traditional butter chicken other dishes may be featured with varying strengths with those of north indian origin such as butter chicken tending to be mild and recipes from the south of india tending to be hotter finding good indian food in britain in general food that differs from the standard british indian restaurant menu can be found in areas with large asian populations areas where one can find good indian food include the quotcurry milequot on wilmslow road in rusholme manchester brick lane in east london englandeast london southall in west london drummond street near euston station in london the quotbalti beltquot in birmingham bradford particularly great horton road belgrave road in leicester in london indian cooking is moving upmarket there are now several michelinstarred establishments serving excellent indian food in luxurious surroundings thai cuisine seecuisine of thailand in thai cuisine curries are meat fish or vegetable dishes in a spiced sauce they use local ingredients such as chilli peppers kaffir lime leaves and coconut milk and tend to be more aromatic than their indian counterparts as a result curries are often described by colour red curryred curries use red chillis while green currygreen curries use green chillis yellow curryyellow curries are more similar to the indian kind with their use of turmeric and cumin malaysian cuisine seecuisine of malaysia malaysian curries typically use coconut milk and a paste of turmeric shallots ginger belacan shrimp paste chilis and garlic tamarind is also often used all sorts of things are curried in malaysia including goat chicken shrimp cuttlefish fish fish head eggplant eggs and mixed vegetables rendang is a malaysian dish that uses curry spices although it is less watery than a conventional malaysian curry japanese cuisine mainjapanese curry japanese curry kar in japanese languagejapanese is one of the most popular dishes in japan it is served in three main forms curry with rice kar udon thick noodles and curry bread karpan bread it is usually thicker sweeter and not as hot as its indian equivalent a wide variety of vegetables and meats are used to make japanese curry the basic vegetables are onions carrots and potatoes sometimes grated apples or honey are added for additional sweetness for the meat pork beef and chicken are the most popular in order of decreasing popularity in tokyo pork is the most popular meat for curry by far while in osaka beef is the most common katsukar is a deepfried pork cutlet in breadcrumbs with curry sauce curry was introduced to japan during the meiji era at a time when india was colonised by the british because of that curry in japan is categorized as western cuisinewestern dish instead of an asian cuisineasian dish elsewhere other countries have their own varieties of curry well known examples include cuisine of sri lankasri lanka rice and curry meals cuisine of indonesiaindonesia rendangs meat or chicken curries with thick brown coconut sauce cuisine of south africasouth africa cape malay curries caribbean cuisinecaribbean curried goat the cuisine of the philippinesphilippines karekare cambodia hawaii the united states myanmar china and singapore also have their own versions of curry httpwellingtonthursdaynightcurrycom tnc in nz also has its own version of the mighty dish curry powder is used as an incidental ingredient in other cuisines including for example a quotcurry saucequot sauce au curry sometimes even au cari variation of the classic french bchamel in iranian cuisine a mix called quotadviehquot is used in many stews and rice dishes it is similar to some curries ingredients in the mix vary but may include cinnamon cardamomcumin coriander tumeric black pepper cloves allspice dried rose petals and ground ginger in trinidad and tobago and guyana curry is a very popular dish among the indocaribbean communities the indentured servents that were brought over from india by the british brought this dish as well as their culture to the west indies curry addiction a number of studies have claimed that the reaction of pain receptors to the hotter ingredients in curries even a korma leads to the bodys release of endorphins and combined with the complex sensory reaction to the variety of spices and flavours a natural high is achieved that causes subsequent cravings often followed by a desire to move on to hotter curries some refer to this as addiction but other researchers contest the use of the word quotaddictionquot in this instancehttpnewsbbccoukhihealthstm additionally curry addiction is an example of a colloquial use of the word quotaddictionquot as the medical definition of the word requires continued use despite harmful effects ingredients thickeners besan chickpeagarbanzo flour onionsshallots cream coconut milk yogurt nuts spices allspice aniseanise seed asafoetida hing bunium persicumblack cumin black pepper cardamom chile peppers dried red cinnamon cloves coriander cumin seeds fennel fenugreek seeds garam masala mace spicemace mustard seeds nigella sativanigella kalonji nutmeg poppy seeds saffron turmeric sour ingredients vinegar tamarind lime fruitlime amchoor dried mango powder also spelled amchur fresh herbs and spices garlic ginger coriander cilantro leaves curry leaves bay leafbay leaves kaffir lime leaves chillies onion other ghee clarified butter curry powder curry powder also known as masala powder is a spice mixture of widely varying composition developed by the british during the british rajraj as a means of approximating the taste of indian cuisine at home masala refers to spices and this is the name given to the thick pasty liquid sauce of combined spices and ghee clarified butter butter palm oil or coconut milk in india masala is a spice of its own and is a reddish colored powder added to curries curry leaves curry leaves are the young leaves of the curry tree chalcas koenigii a member of the rutaceae family that grows wild and in gardens all over india fresh curry leaves are oval in shape and best used at about inch in length they have a pungent and bitter smell much like the leaves of a citrus tree leaves are typically fried until browned then cook with the dish before serving the leaves are removed leaves are most powerful when fresh but can be dried and used to less effect see also list of ethnic slurs curry or curry muncher as ethnic slurs rice and curry external links cookbookcurry httpwwwhousefoodscomourproductsimportedproductshtml house foods curry categoryindian cuisine categorybritish cuisine categorythai cuisine categorymalaysian cuisine bg decurry escurry eokareo frcurry nlkerrie ja nokarri nnkarri plcurry slcurry ficurry svcurry zhtext revision page page titlecameltitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernametigersharkusername idid contributor minor commentreverted edits by specialcontributions user talktalk to last version by tshilocomment text xmlspacepreserveotheruses taxobox color pink name camels image bactriancameljpg imagewidth px imagecaption bactrian camel image dromedaryjpg imagewidth px imagecaption dromedary regnum animalia phylum chordata classis mammalia ordo artiodactyla subordo tylopoda familia camelidae genus camelus genusauthority carolus linnaeuslinnaeus subdivisionranks species subdivision camelus bactrianusltbr gt camelus dromedarius a camel is either of the two species of large eventoed ungulate in the genus camelus the dromedary single hump and the bactrian camel double hump both are native to the dry and desert areas of asia and northern africa the average life expectancy of a camel is to years the term camel is also used more broadly to describe any of the six camellike creatures in the family camelidae the two true camels and the four south american camelids llama alpaca guanaco and vicuna for an overview of the camel family see camelidae for more information on the two true camels see dromedary and bactrian camel the name camel comes via the greek languagegreek kamelos from the arabic languagearabic jamal or the hebrew languagehebrew gahmal all meaning quotcamelquot bactrian camels have two coats the warm inner coat of down and a rough outer coat which is long and hairy they shed their fiber in clumps consisting of both coats and is normally gathered they produce about pounds of fiber annually the fiber structure is similar to cashmere the down is usually inches long camel down does not felt easily the down is spun into yarn for knitting humans first domesticated camels approximately years ago the dromedary and the bactrian camel are both still used for milk meat and as working animalbeasts of burdenampmdashthe dromedary in northern africa and western asia the bactrian camel further to the north and east in central asia distribution and numbers although there are almost million dromedaries alive today the species is extinct in the wild all but a handful are domesticated animals mostly in sudan somalia india and nearby countries as well as south africa namibia and botswana there is however a substantial feral population estimated at in central parts of australia descended from individuals that escaped from captivity in the late th century this population is growing at approximately per year and in recent times the state government of south australia has decided to cull the animals using aerial marksmen the reason being that the camels use too much of the limited resources needed by sheep farmers for more information see australian feral camel the bactrian camel once had an enormous range but is now reduced to an estimated million animals mostly domesticated it is thought that there are about wild bactrian camels in the gobi desert and small numbers in iran afghanistan turkey and russia a small population of introduced camels dromedaries and bactrians survived in the southwest united states until the early th centurys these animals imported from turkey were part of the us camel corps experiment and used as draft animals in mines and escaped or were released after the project fell through camel hybrids imagedsertdutharjpgrightthumbpxthroughout their domesticated history camels have been used as a means of transportation in arid regions shown here is a local tribe near jaisalmer india bactrian camel have humps and are rugged coldclimate camels while dromedaries have one hump and are desert dwellers bactriandromedary hybrids are called bukhts are larger than either parent have a single hump and are good draft camels the females can be mated back to a bactrian to produce threequarter bred riding camels these hybrids are found in kazakhstan the cama is a camelllama hybrid bred by scientists who wanted to see how closely related the parent species were the dromedary camel is six times the weight of a llama hence artificial insemination was required to impregnate the llama female llama male to dromedary female have proven unsuccessful though born even smaller than a llama calf the cama had the short ears and long tail of a camel no hump and llamalike cloven hooves rather than the dromedarylike pads at four years old the cama became sexually mature and interested in llama and guanaco females a second cama female has since been produced using artificial insemination because camels and llamas both have chromosomes scientists hope that the cama will be fertile if so there is potential for increasing size meatwool yield and packdraft ability in south american camels the cama apparently inherited the poor temperament of both parents as well as demonstrating the relatedness of the new world and old world camelids the south american camelids can be hybridized a male alpacafemale llama results in a huarizo a male vicunafemale alpaca results in a pacovicuna a female alpacamale llama results in a misti a male vicunafemale llama results in a llamovicuna a male alpacafemale guanaco results in a pacoguanaco a male guanacofemale llama results in a llamaguanaco unusual in that the sires name should form the first part of the hybrids name a llamaalpaca cross which resembles the llama parent is also known as a warilla but if it resembles the alpaca parent it is called a taqa adaptations to desert environment camels are well known for their humps they do not store water in them as is commonly believed their humps are a reservoir of fatty tissue while water is stored in their blood however when this tissue is metabolised it is not only a source of energy but yields through reaction with oxygen from the air g of water per g of fat this allows them to survive without water for about two weeks and without food for up to a month their red blood cells have an oval shape unlike those of other animals which are circular this is to facilitate their flow in a dehydrationdehydrated state these cells are also more stablehttpwwwncbinlmnihgoventrezqueryfcgicmdretrieveampdbpubmedamplistuidsampdoptabstract in order to withstand high osmosisosmotic variation without rupturing when drinking large amounts of water camels are able to withstand changes in body temperature and water content that would kill most other animals their temperature ranges from ampdegc at night up to ampdegc at day only above this threshold they start to sweat this allows them to preserve about five litres of water a day however they can withstand at least weight loss due to sweating the thick coat reflects sunlight a shaved camel has to sweat more to avoid overheating their mouth is very sturdy to be able to eat thorny desert plants long eyelashes and ear hairs together with sealable nostrils prevent sand from entering their pace always moving both legs of one side at the same time and their widened feet help them move without sinking in see also camel racing external links httpabbottinfotechcozakalahariuseofcamelsbysouthafricanpolicehtml use of camels by south african police httpwwwicarorginnrccmhomehtml national camel research centre bikaner rajasthan india httpwwwandycarvincomarchivesthedailygrindhtml the daily grind two camels at work video of camels pressing olive oil and cutting grass in djerba tunisia httpwwwarabnetcamels the az of camels camelids categorycamelids categorylivestock afkameel cacamell csvelbloud cycamel dealtweltkamele escamello eokamelo frchameau glcamelo he iacamelo itdromedario iokamelo ko huteve nlkamelen nokamel ja plwielbd ptcamelus ru simplecamel svkamel trdeve vilc zhtext revision page page titlechaldeatitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamegarzousername idid contributor commentcopyeditcomment text xmlspacepreservetemplateancient mesopotamia chaldea quotthe chaldeesquot of the king james version of the biblekjv old testament was a hellenistic designation for a part of babylonia one early such reference is to the impending sack of jerusalem by nebuchadnezzar ii book of habakkukhabakkuk the hebrew languagehebrew name for ancient chaldeans was kadim the book of genesis narrative of abraham places him at ur which was at a later time the country of the kasdimampmdash the quotchaldeansquot or just possibly the quotkassitesquot the toponymy is that of the neobabylonian period of the torah editors not that of the supposed time of the original patriarch of the hebrew people himself the th dynasty of the kings of babylon th century bc is conventionally known to historians as the chaldean dynasty their kingdom in the southern portion of babylonia lay chiefly on the right bank of the euphrates though the name came to be commonly used to refer to the whole of mesopotamia chaldea proper was the vast plain in the south formed by the deposits of the euphrates and the tigris extending to about four hundred miles along the course of these rivers and about a hundred miles in average width people the chaldeans settled in southern mesopotamia in the early part of the first millennium bc their language was aramaic languagearamaic and they settled much further to the south than the arameans who settled in northern mesopotamia and arameaaram they were one of the later tribes to leave the arabian peninsulaquotarabianquot peninsula and to settle in the fertile crescent in modern times there are several hundred thousands members of the chaldean catholic church in assyrians in iraqiraq assyrians in iraniran and in the assyrian diasporadiaspora whose name was given by the pope in the th century some of them claim descent from the ancient chaldeans others from the ancient assyrians and a majority of their parties and other organisartions agreed in to be called chaldoassyrians see also assyrian people politics the chaldean influence was felt in babylonian politics several th and th century bc babylonian kings were of chaldean origin the chaldeans formed some of the strongest resistance to assyrian rule king mardukapaliddina ii resisted the assyrians in the times of sargon ii and the early years of sennacherib king mushezibmarduk was king just before sennacheribs sack of babylon in bc when babylonia finally reestablished its independence it was under the chaldean dynasty of king nabopolassar after the conquest of babylonia by the persians the chaldeans disappear as an independent nation quotchaldeanquot astrologers and magicians ancient romeroman and later authors used the name chaldeans in particular for astrologyastrologers and mathematicsmathematicians from babylonia categoryancient peoples categorybabylonia categoryaramaeans categorychaldeans categoryassyria dechalder escaldea frchalde itcaldei ja ptcaldia svkaldeen zh external links and references httpwwwjewishencyclopediacomviewjspartidamplettercampsearchchaldea jewish encyclopedia chaldea httpwwwbritannicacomebcarticletocid encyclopedia britannica chaldea httpwwwstudylightorglexhebviewcginumber study light kasidytext revision page page titlecurryingtitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamefleminrausername idid contributor comment c stlboost curryingcomment text xmlspacepreservein computer science currying is the technique of transforming a function programmingfunction taking multiple parameter computer sciencearguments into a function that takes a single argument the first of the arguments to the original function and returns a new function that takes the remainder of the arguments and returns the result the technique was named by christopher strachey after logician haskell curry though it was invented by moses schnfinkel and gottlob frege intuitively currying says quotif you fix some parameter computer sciencearguments you get a function of the remaining argumentsquot so if you take the function in ltemgttwoltemgt variables ltmathgtyxltmathgt and ltemgtfixltemgt ltmathgtyltmathgt then you get the function in ltemgtoneltemgt variable ltmathgtxltmathgt in theoretical computer science currying provides a way to study functions with multiple arguments in very simple theoretical models such as the lambda calculus in which functions only take a single argument the practical motivation for currying is that very often the functions you get by supplying some but not all of the arguments to a curried function are useful for example many languages have a function or operator similar to ltcodegtplusoneltcodegt currying makes it easy to define these functions some programming languages have syntactic sugar for currying notably ml programming languageml and haskell programming languagehaskell any language that supports functions as firstclass objects including lisp programming languagelisp perl ruby programming languageruby python programming languagepython and javascript can be used to write curried functions examples suppose that ltcodegtplusltcodegt is a function taking two arguments ltcodegtxltcodegt and ltcodegtyltcodegt and returning ltcodegtx yltcodegt in the ml programming language we would define it as follows plus fnx y gt x y and ltcodegtplus ltcodegt returns ltcodegtltcodegt as we expect the curried version of ltcodegtplusltcodegt takes a single argument ltcodegtxltcodegt and returns a new function which takes a single argument ltcodegtyltcodegt and returns ltcodegtx yltcodegt in ml we would define it as follows curriedplus fnx gt fny gt x y and now when we call ltcodegtcurriedplusltcodegt we get a new function that adds to its argument plusone curriedplus and now ltcodegtplusoneltcodegt returns ltcodegtltcodegt and ltcodegtplusoneltcodegt returns ltcodegtltcodegt when declaring functions in the strictlytyped ocaml programming language the type returned by a function shows the curried form of the function typing the function into the ocaml interpreter computinginterpreter displays the type immediately let plus x y x y val plus int gt int gt int ltfungt c currying may be achieved in c using the standard template library function object adapters ltcodegtbinderstltcodegt and ltcodegtbinderndltcodegt and more generically using the boost libraryboost ltcodegtbindltcodegt mechanism here is another way to do currying in c from httpwwwcodepostorgviewcomment this comment on codepostorg the plus function int plusint x int y return x y the curried version of ltcodegtplusltcodegt class curriedplus private int x public curriedplusint x xx int operator int y const return plusx y and the usage curriedplus plusone now ltcodegtplusoneltcodegt returns ltcodegtltcodegt mathematical view when viewed in a settheoretic light currying becomes the theorem that the set ltmathgtabtimes cltmathgt of functions from ltmathgtbtimes cltmathgt to ltmathgtaltmathgt and the set ltmathgtabcltmathgt of functions from ltmathgtcltmathgt to the set of functions from ltmathgtbltmathgt to ltmathgtaltmathgt are isomorphic in other words currying is the statement that product and hom are adjoint functors this is the key property of being a cartesian closed category see also lazy evaluation closure computer science smn theorem categoryfunctional programming categorymathematical logic categorylambda calculus decurrying frcurryficationtext revision page page titlecyrus disambiguationtitle idid revision idid timestamptztimestamp contributor usernamefastifexusername idid contributor commentcyrus ii pahlavi cyrus of alexandriacomment text xmlspacepreservethe name cyrus or kourosh in persian language persian kyros in greek may refer to persian rulers and princes cyrus i of anshan list of kings of persiaking of persia around anno dominibc cyrus ii of persia cyrus ii the great achaemenid list of kings of persiaking of kings of persia bc bc ampmdash see also cyrus in the judeochristian tradition and cyrus the great in the quran cyrus the younger brother to the persian king of kings artaxerxes ii of persiaartaxerxes ampmdash died bc cyrus reza ii pahlavi pretender to the modern iranian imperial throne succeeded his father mohammed reza pahlavi in exile furthermore cyrus of alexandria a melchite patriarch and cofounder of monothelism cyrus chrono triggercyrus is the name of a character in the video game chrono trigger cyrus imapd ampmdash a mail server meant to be run on a sealed system cyrus poncha ampmdash national squash coach india don callis ampmdash a professional wrestlingprofessional wrestler who competed as cyrus cyrus another moniker of basic channels moritz von oswald and mark ernestus cyrus a brand of audio hardware cyrus broachamtv india vj cyrus sahukarmtv india vj' tree = [''] window_start = 1 window_end = 17 roof = 23 low = 1 high = 1 middle = 1 compressed = '' for count2 in range(266700): window = input2[int(window_start - 1) : int(window_end)] window_start = window_start + 1 window_end = window_end + 1 char_location = 17 remove = 2 char_index = 1 node = 1 predictions = [['abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz ', [0.2, 0.07, 0.09, 0.09, 0.2, 0.07, 0.07, 0.07, 0.09, 0.06, 0.07, 0.07, 0.09, 0.09, 0.09, 0.07, 0.01, 0.09, 0.09, 0.09, 0.07, 0.07, 0.06, 0.05, 0.07, 0.003, 0.1]]] # from window find all overlayers's final node in window and put them while not (char_index == 0 or char_location == 0): if window_end == 18: break if char_location != 17: char = window[int(char_location - 1)] char_index = tree[int(node - 1)].find(char) + 1 char_location = char_location + 1 if char_index != 0 and char_location == 18: predictions.insert(1, tree[int(node - 1) : int(node + 1)]) node = 1 char_location = char_location - remove remove = remove + 1 elif char_index != 0: node = tree[int((node + 2) - 1)][int(char_index - 1)] predict = ['', []] remaining = 1 # for the longest search found last it is at front of 'predict', mix sets for j in predictions: text = j[0] sum2 = sum(j[-1]) if sum2 > roof: _25ofRoof = 1 * remaining else: _25ofRoof = (sum2 / roof) * remaining remaining = remaining - _25ofRoof char_location = 1 for k in text: freq = j[-1][int(char_location - 1)] char_index = predict[0].find(k) + 1 if char_index == 0: predict[0] = str(predict[0]) + str(k) predict[-1].append((freq / sum2) * _25ofRoof) else: predict[-1][int(char_index - 1)] = predict[-1][int(char_index - 1)] + (freq / sum2) * _25ofRoof char_location = char_location + 1 if remaining <= 0: break char_location = 1 summ = 1 - sum(predict[-1]) # at first there will be missing %, small fix for n in predict[-1]: predict[-1][int(char_location - 1)] = n + summ / len(predict[-1]) char_location = char_location + 1 char_location = 1 low = high decodepart = '0.' + str(decode[int(de1 - 1) : int(de2)]) decodepart = float(decodepart) # arithmetic coding for m in predict[0]: high = low low = low - predict[-1][int(char_location - 1)] * middle char_location = char_location + 1 if encode == 'yes': if m == window[-1]: break else: if high > decodepart and decodepart > low: window = str(window) + str(m) input2 = str(input2) + str(m) break char_location = 1 while not (str(low)[int(char_location - 1)] != str(high)[int(char_location - 1)] or char_location == len(str(low))): char_location = char_location + 1 char_location = char_location - 1 compressed = str(compressed) + str(str(low)[2 : int(char_location)]) char_location = char_location - 2 for count in range(int(char_location)): high = high * 10 low = low * 10 de1 = de1 + 1 de2 = de2 + 1 middle = math.floor(low) high = high - middle low = low - middle middle = high - low node = 1 # save branch and update each node count for i in window: char_index = tree[int(node - 1)].find(i) + 1 if char_index == 0: tree[int(node - 1)] = str(tree[int(node - 1)]) + str(i) if node == len(tree): tree.append([]) tree.append([]) tree[int((node + 1) - 1)].append(1) tree[int((node + 2) - 1)].append(len(tree) + 1) tree.append('') node = len(tree) else: freq = tree[int((node + 1) - 1)][int(char_index - 1)] tree[int((node + 1) - 1)][int(char_index - 1)] = freq + 1 node = tree[int((node + 2) - 1)][int(char_index - 1)] print(compressed) print(input2)